Proteomic characterization of evolutionarily conserved and variable proteins of Arabidopsis cytosolic ribosomes

Analysis of 80S ribosomes of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) by use of high-speed centrifugation, sucrose gradient fractionation, one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, liquid chromatography purification, and mass spectrometry (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight and electrospray ionization) identified 74 ribosomal proteins (r-proteins), of which 73 are orthologs of rat r-proteins and one is the plant-specific r-protein P3. Thirty small (40S) subunit and 44 large (60S) subunit r-proteins were confirmed. In addition, an ortholog of the mammalian receptor for activated protein kinase C, a tryptophan-aspartic acid-domain repeat protein, was found to be associated with the 40S subunit and polysomes. Based on the prediction that each r-protein is present in a single copy, the mass of the Arabidopsis 80S ribosome was estimated as 3.2 MD (1,159 kD 40S; 2,010 kD 60S), with the 4 single-copy rRNAs (18S, 26S, 5.8S, and 5S) contributing 53% of the mass. Despite strong evolutionary conservation in r-protein composition among eukaryotes, Arabidopsis 80S ribosomes are variable in composition due to distinctions in mass or charge of approximately 25% of the r-proteins. This is a consequence of amino acid sequence divergence within r-protein gene families and posttranslational modification of individual r-proteins (e.g. amino-terminal acetylation, phosphorylation). For example, distinct types of r-proteins S15a and P2 accumulate in ribosomes due to evolutionarily divergence of r-protein genes. Ribosome variation is also due to amino acid sequence divergence and differential phosphorylation of the carboxy terminus of r-protein S6. The role of ribosome heterogeneity in differential mRNA translation is discussed.     

Studies on ribosomal protein biosynthesis in an RNA polymerase temperature sensitive E. coli mutant.

Summary In E. coli strain XH56 the synthesis of all RNA species is blocked upon shifting the culture to the non-permissive temperature. The decay of specific messenger RNA species coding for individual ribosomal (r) proteins was followed by measuring the rate of r-protein synthesis by pulse labelling at various times after the shift. The half-lives of the average 30S r-protein and 50S r-protein mRNA species are identical (1.75 min) and shorter than those of the average messenger coding for total cell proteins (2.75 min). Most individual r-protein messengers have a half-life in the same range (1.50–2.00). Only a few r-protein messengers have significantly longer half-lives: S1 (2.80 min), S17 (3.29 min), L29 (2.30 min), L31 (2.30 min), L32 (2.33 min) and L16 (2.60 min). The results indicate that the degradation of most individual r-protein mRNA species is not specifically controlled.After a few min at the non-permissive temperature, all protein synthesis is blocked. The restart of r-protein synthesis was followed after shifting the culture back to the permissive temperature. The recovery of cell growth is very slow. During this period preferential r-protein synthesis was observed. Moreover differential rates of biosynthesis of r-proteins was obtained, it may be indicative of specific regulatory process(es).     

Stability of ribosomal protein mRNA and translational feedback regulation in Escherichia coli

Summary It was previously observed that the stability of ribosomal protein (r-protein) mRNA in Escherichia coli decreases under the conditions where its translation is feedback inhibited by repressor r-protein. We have now demonstrated that the stability of mRNA for r-proteins S13, S11 and S4 increases in a strain carrying a mutation in the gene for S4, a translational repressor regulating these r-proteins. The results confirm the previous observations that translational repression increases the decay rate of r-protein mRNA, and in addition, show that the half-life of S13-S4 r-protein mRNA in cells growing under ordinary conditions is significantly shorter than its inherent stability would predict, due to the operation of translational feedback regulation.     

Effects of induction of rRNA overproduction on ribosomal protein synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly in Escherichia coli.

Overproduction of rRNA was artificially induced in Escherichia coli cells to test whether the synthesis of ribosomal protein (r-protein) is normally repressed by feedback regulation. When rRNA was overproduced more than twofold from a hybrid plasmid carrying the rrnB operon fused to the lambda pL promoter (pL-rrnB), synthesis of individual r-proteins increased by an average of about 60%. This demonstrates that the synthesis of r-proteins is repressed under normal conditions. The increase of r-protein production, however, for unknown reasons, was not as great as the increase in rRNA synthesis and resulted in an imbalance between the amounts of rRNA and r-protein synthesis. Therefore, only a small (less than 20%) increase in the synthesis of complete 30S and 50S ribosome subunits was detected, and a considerable fraction of the excess rRNA was degraded. Lack of complete cooperativity in the assembly of ribosome subunits in vivo is discussed as a possible explanation for the absence of a large stimulation of ribosome synthesis observed under these conditions. In addition to the induction of intact rRNA overproduction from the pL-rrnB operon, the effects of unbalanced overproduction of each of the two large rRNAs, 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA, on r-protein synthesis were examined using pL-rrnB derivatives carrying a large deletion in either the 23S rRNA gene or the 16S rRNA gene. Operon-specific derepression after 23S or 16S rRNA overproduction correlated with the overproduction of rRNA containing the target site for the operon-specific repressor r-protein. These results are discussed to explain the apparent coupling of the assembly of one ribosomal subunit with that of the other which was observed in earlier studies on conditionally lethal mutants with defects in ribosome assembly.     

Balanced production of 30S and 50S ribosomal proteins after a nutritional shift-up.

The synthesis of bulk ribosomal protein (r-protein) after a nutritional shift-up in Escherichia coli B/r was examined. It was found that the molar ratio of the net synthesis rates of 30S and 50S r-protein remains constant during the transition period after the shift-up and equal to the preshift ratio. The implications for the control of ribosome synthesis are discussed.     

Erythromycin and 5S rRNA binding properties of the spinach chloroplast ribosomal protein CL22.

The spinach chloroplast ribosomal protein (r-protein) CL22 contains a central region homologous to the Escherichia coli r-protein L22 plus long N- and C-terminal extensions. We show in this study that the CL22 combines two properties which in E. coli ribosome are split between two separate proteins. The CL22 which binds to the 5S rRNA can also be linked to an erythromycin derivative added to the 50S ribosomal subunit. This latter property is similar to that of the E. coli L22 and suggests a similar localization in the 50S subunit. We have overproduced the r-protein CL22 and deleted forms of this protein in E. coli. We show that the overproduced CL22 binds to the chloroplast 5S rRNA and that the deleted protein containing the N- and C-terminal extensions only has lost the 5S rRNA binding property. We suggest that the central homologous regions of the CL22 contains the RNA binding domain.     

Assembly of the 5' and 3' minor domains of 16S ribosomal RNA as monitored by tethered probing from ribosomal protein S20

The ribosomal protein (r-protein) S20 is a primary binding protein. As such, it interacts directly and independently with the 5′ domain as well as the 3′ minor domain of 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in minimal particles and the fully assembled 30S subunit. The interactions observed between r-protein S20 and the 5′ domain of 16S rRNA are quite extensive, while those between r-protein S20 and the 3′ minor domain are significantly more limited. In this study, directed hydroxyl radical probing mediated by Fe(II)-derivatized S20 proteins was used to monitor the folding of 16S rRNA during r-protein association and 30S subunit assembly. An analysis of the cleavage patterns in the minimal complexes [16S rRNA and Fe(II)-S20] and the fully assembled 30S subunit containing the same Fe(II)-derivatized proteins shows intriguing similarities and differences. These results suggest that the two domains, 5′ and 3′ minor, are organized relative to S20 at different stages of assembly. The 5′ domain acquires, in a less complex ribonucleoprotein particle than the 3′ minor domain, the same architecture as observed in mature subunits. These results are similar to what would be predicted of subunit assembly by the 5′-to-3′ direction assembly model.     

A genetic approach to characterizing complex promoters in E. coli

The chromosomal distributions of five families of mouse r-protein genes (S16, L18, L19, L30 and L32/33) were studied by Southern blot analysis of DNA from a panel of mouse-hamster hybrid cells containing various complements of mouse chromosomes. Our results indicated that members of a particular family are often located on more than one chromosome, that extensive clustering of many r-protein gene families on a few chromosomes is unlikely, and that there is no obligatory linkage of r-protein and rRNA genes.     

Molecular evolutionary analyses of the Arabidopsis L7 ribosomal protein gene family

Cytoplasmic ribosomal protein (r-protein) genes in Arabidopsis thaliana are encoded by 80 multigene families that contain between two and seven members. Gene family members are typically similar at the protein sequence level, with the most divergent members of any gene family retaining 94% identity, on average. However, three Arabidopsis r-protein families - S15a, L7 and P2 - contain highly divergent family members. Here, we investigated the organization, structure, expression and molecular evolution of the L7 r-protein family. Phylogenetic analyses showed that L7 r-protein gene family members constitute two distinct phylogenetic groups. The first group including RPL7B, RPL7C and RPL7D has homologs in plants, animals and fungi. The second group represented by RPL7A is found in plants but has no orthologs from other fully-sequenced eukaryotic genomes. These two groups may have derived from a duplication event prior to the divergence of animals and plants. All four L7 r-protein genes are expressed and all exhibit a differential expression in inflorescence and flowers. RPL7A and RPL7B are less expressed than the other genes in all tissues analyzed. Molecular characterization of nucleic and protein sequences of L7 r-protein genes and analysis of their codon usage did not indicate any functional divergence. The probable evolution of an extra-ribosomal function of group 2 genes is discussed.     

Expression of ribosomal-protein genes in Xenopus laevis development

Using probes to Xenopus laevis ribosomal-protein (r-protein) mRNAs, we have found that in the oocyte the accumulation of r-protein mRNAs proceeds to a maximum level, which is attained at the onset of vitellogenesis and remains stable thereafter. In the embryo, r-protein mRNA sequences are present at low levels in the cytoplasm during early cleavage (stages 2-5), become undetectable until gastrulation (stage 10) and accumulate progressively afterwards. Normalization of the amount of mRNA to cell number suggests an activation of r-protein genes around stage 10; however, a variation in mRNA turnover cannot be excluded. Newly synthesized ribosomal proteins cannot be found from early cleavage up to stage 26, with the exception of S3, L17 and L31, which are constantly made, and protein L5, which starts to be synthesized around stage 7. A complete set of ribosomal proteins is actively produced only in tailbud embryos (stages 28-32), several hours after the appearance of their mRNAs. Before stage 26 these mRNA sequences are found on subpolysomal fractions, whereas more than 50% of them are associated with polysomes at stage 31. Anucleolate mutants do not synthesize ribosomal proteins at the time when normal embryos do it very actively; nevertheless, they accumulate r-protein mRNAs.     

Isolation and nucleotide sequence of the ribosomal protein S16-encoding gene from Aspergillus nidulans.

A genomic clone has been isolated from Aspergillus nidulans which is homologous to the ribosomal (r) protein S16-encoding gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S16A) and the r-protein S19-encoding gene of rat (S19). The amino acid (aa) sequences, deduced from nucleotide (nt) sequence analysis, show that in both cases more than 63% of the aa are conserved. The proposed A. nidulans r-protein S16 gene (rps16) differs from that of S. cerevisiae in that it occurs as a single copy in the haploid genome (rather than two copies as in yeast) and contains two putative introns (rather than one). The mRNA leader is long compared to many Aspergillus genes, commencing 293 nt upstream from the coding region, and contains an open reading frame of 13 codons.