Weather patterns, food security and humanitarian response in sub-Saharan Africa

Although considerable achievements in the global reduction of hunger and poverty have been made, progress in Africa so far has been very limited. At present, a third of the African population faces widespread hunger and chronic malnutrition and is exposed to a constant threat of acute food crisis and famine. The most affected are rural households whose livelihood is heavily dependent on traditional rainfed agriculture. Rainfall plays a major role in determining agricultural production and hence the economic and social well being of rural communities. The rainfall pattern in sub-Saharan Africa is influenced by large-scale intra-seasonal and inter-annual climate variability including occasional El Ni?o events in the tropical Pacific resulting in frequent extreme weather event such as droughts and floods that reduce agricultural outputs resulting in severe food shortages. Households and communities facing acute food shortages are forced to adopt coping strategies to meet the immediate food requirements of their families. These extreme responses may have adverse long-term, impacts on households' ability to have sustainable access to food as well as the environment. The HIV/AIDS crisis has also had adverse impacts on food production activities on the continent. In the absence of safety nets and appropriate financial support mechanisms, humanitarian aid is required to enable households effectively cope with emergencies and manage their limited resources more efficiently. Timely and appropriate humanitarian aid will provide households with opportunities to engage in productive and sustainable livelihood strategies. Investments in poverty reduction efforts would have better impact if complemented with timely and predictable response mechanisms that would ensure the protection of livelihoods during crisis periods whether weather or conflict-related. With an improved understanding of climate variability including El Ni?o, the implications of weather patterns for the food security and vulnerability of rural communities have become more predictable and can be monitored effectively. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how current advances in the understanding of climate variability, weather patterns and food security could contribute to improved humanitarian decision-making. The paper will propose new approaches for triggering humanitarian responses to weather-induced food crises.     

Livelihood Diversity, Food Security and Resilience among the Caiçara of Coastal Brazil

To analyze the relationships between local livelihoods and vulnerability to food insecurity, using a resilience approach, we interviewed 350 households from seven mixed-heritage Caiçara communities in Paraty, Brazil. Fishing was a livelihood activity for 70 % of the households, and the main declared activity for 16 %. Fishing was combined with other activities such as day-wage jobs, tourism, agriculture, and commerce. Livelihood activities were not homogeneously distributed among communities, and a higher proportion of fishing households were found in generalist communities. Food insecurity appeared to be transitory (and not chronic), and fishing is central to food security. Small-scale fisheries cannot be seen in isolation from the diversity of activities that make up the livelihood portfolios of coastal communities. In view of rapid change in the area, pressures from protected areas, large-scale fisheries, tourism development and economic change in general, threaten the resilience of Caiçara livelihoods, with implications for future food insecurity.     

Assessment of sustainable livelihoods of different farmers in hilly red soil erosion areas of southern China

Livelihood vulnerability in environmentally fragile areas is emerging as a key issue due to its positive feedback to environmental degradation. Assessment of sustainable livelihoods is a crucial prerequisite for targeting interventions. However, aggregated analysis usually obtained ambiguous conclusions because they ignored the heterogeneity of rural households. Here, we evaluated the livelihood sustainability of different rural households by constructing an improved Livelihood Sustainability Index (LSI) in hilly red soil erosion areas of southern China. Changting County was selected as the study case by virtue of its unique representativeness in soil erosion and poverty. The results showed that livelihood sustainability among rural households was far from equivalent. Different from previous studies, higher nonfarm income share was not always consistent with higher extent of livelihood sustainability. Besides nonfarm employment, agricultural specialization could be another viable pathway to attain sustainable livelihoods. We also found that intergenerational sustainability was one primary cause for long-term livelihood differentiation of rural households. The poor education in rural areas would aggravate livelihood vulnerability of the poor and threaten the sustainable livelihoods of specialized agricultural households. Policy implications include further investment in rural infrastructure, irrigation and drainage, and stimulus for land transfer and concentration to facilitate agrarian specialization; enhancing investment in rural education to improve intergenerational sustainability; as well as targeting of the most vulnerable households, for example, promoting development of social insurance, social relief, and medical services for orphans and widows.     

西南地区少数民族传统生计变迁与农户生计安全

少数民族农户生计及其安全对于民族地区的生态建设、区域发展和文化保护有着重要意义。在总结中国西南地区少数民族传统生计及其特点、传统生计变迁及其主要驱动力的基础上,主要从环境行为/生态后果、文化适应两方面分析了生计变迁的影响。资源配置家庭化是少数民族生计变迁后的一个显著特点,因此对于农户生计的研究应受到重视。当前针对农户生计的研究主要围绕可持续生计分析框架和农户生计安全而开展。农户生计安全是农村社会可持续发展的微观基础,与可持续生计密切相关。在考虑西南地区生态安全的背景下,生态脆弱性和生计后果是相关研究需要重点关注的内容,而针对少数民族生计的研究还需要突出民族文化的特点和作用。民族文化资本化是保护民族文化、发展民族地区经济的有效途径,将民族文化作为生计资本并纳入可持续生计分析框架将是对西南少数民族生计研究的有效补充。     

Drought impact assessment on rural livelihood systems in Iran

The present study aimed to analyze the effects of drought on rural livelihood systems in Iran with an emphasis on the mediator role of livelihood assets in relationship between drought and livelihood outcomes. The relationships between these concepts were explored through the lens of sustainable livelihoods approach. A conceptual model was developed based on the literature review and was evaluated using cross-sectional data based on 11 years average of each variable from 2002 to the end of 2012. Regarding research objectives, a documentary review was applied to collect necessary data and information. So, secondary data were obtained from national surveys and statistical sources of governmental organizations. Data were analyzed using multiple regression. We followed the Baron and Kenny’s (1986) three-step procedure to test mediating relationships between variables. Results generally showed that drought duration had destructive effects on rural livelihood capitals and outcomes, while the negative influences of drought severity were far more restricted than drought duration. Complete mediation of livelihood assets in the relationship between drought intensity and inequality was confirmed. We also found support for partial mediation of livelihood assets in the relationship between drought severity and duration with the added value of the agricultural sector as well as in the relationship between drought duration and inequality.     

Fishing Farmers: Fishing, Livelihood Diversification and Poverty in Rural Laos

The relationship between fishing, livelihood diversification and poverty was investigated in the lower Mekong basin, in Laos, where fishing forms an important, but usually secondary part of rural livelihoods. Results from a household survey show that participation in fishing is common and positively associated with higher occupational diversity and more agricultural activities. This is likely due to the low opportunity costs associated with many forms of fishing and factors such as tradition, enjoyment of fishing, underutilised labour and low capital requirements. Alternative livelihoods within the rural setting are therefore unlikely to cause fishers to leave the fishery, but instead strengthen the livelihood portfolio as a supplementary activity. Fishing is not an activity only for the very poorest households, but is undertaken by all wealth groups. However, fishing forms a greater proportion of income, employment and food security for the poor and is important in households with poor quality farm land.     

A synthesis of past,current and future research for protection and management of papyrus (Cyperus papyrus L.) wetlands in Africa

Papyrus wetlands (dominated by the giant sedge Cyperus papyrus L.) occur throughout eastern, central and southern Africa and are important for biodiversity, for water quality and quantity regulation and for the livelihoods of millions of people. To draw attention to the importance of papyrus wetlands, a special session entitled “The ecology of livelihoods in papyrus wetlands” was organized at the 9th INTECOL Wetlands Conference in Orlando, Florida in June 2012. Papers from the session, combined with additional contributions, were collected in a special issue of Wetlands Ecology and Management. The current paper reviews ecological and hydrological characteristics of papyrus wetlands, summarizes their ecosystem services and sustainable use, provides an overview of papyrus research to date, and looks at policy development for papyrus wetlands. Based on this review, the paper provides a synthesis of research and policy priorities for papyrus wetlands and introduces the contributions in the special issue. Main conclusions are that (1) there is a need for better estimates of the area covered by papyrus wetlands. Limited evidence suggests that the loss of papyrus wetlands is rapid in some areas; (2) there is a need for a better understanding and modelling of the regulating services of papyrus wetlands to support trade-off analysis and improve economic valuation; (3) research on papyrus wetlands should include assessment of all ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, habitat, cultural) so that trade-offs can be determined as the basis for sustainable management strategies (‘wise use’); (4) more research on the governance, institutional and socio-economic aspects of papyrus wetlands is needed to assist African governments in dealing with the challenges of conserving wetlands in the face of growing food security needs and climate change. The papers in the special issue address a number of these issues.     

Local livelihoods and institutions in managing wildlife ecosystems: The case of Babile Elephant Sanctuary in Ethiopia

This paper analyzes inherent incentives and institutional challenges in managing elephant sanctuary ecosystems, using the case of the Babile Elephant Sanctuary in Ethiopia. The study was based on the data collected from local communities experiencing different livelihood systems and experts from the local state authorities. A total of 35 interviews were conducted for an in-depth case study. Results show that historical and socio-political factors have undermined the effectiveness of state-based institutions in managing the ecosystem. The welfare loss of local communities relying on the ecosystem has resulted in a dispute between the state managing the ecosystem and those holding customary rights to the delineated land. Absence of adequate compensation for the crop damage by elephants has made the local people to regard the state intervention as unfair action. The study suggests the need to search for institutional frameworks that can transform hostile relationship into a mutually beneficial one. Such condition may ensure humans’ peaceful co-existence with the wildlife without destroying the habitat and constraining sustainable livelihoods.     

Climate changes could jeopardize a main source of livelihood in Africa’s drylands

Climate change in Africa poses a serious threat to many ecosystems and livelihoods, making them vulnerable to climate-related risks. Gum and resin bearing tree species as the genus Boswellia are the main economic and livelihood sources in most dryland areas of Africa. We use species distribution models to find critical sites where Boswellia species may no longer occur in the future. Our models identify potential regions that could benefit from their cultivation and promote conservation efforts for the species to thrive. We projected models to new CMIP6 scenarios and different dispersal profiles. Despite the prevailing aridity already imposed on the species, Boswellia distribution shows a dramatic reduction. Future investments in Boswellia restoration and strategies to promote sustainable extraction of resources may be key to sustain populations and Boswellia dominated forests in many parts of the African continent.     

旅游与生计可视化分析

旅游发展对当地居民的生计具有重要影响,旅游与生计研究业已成为学术界关注的热点领域。以Web of science核心库中1994—2016年间收录相关主题的文献为基础,利用可视化软件Cite Space和Carrot2对旅游与生计研究的前沿热点、知识基础和合作网络进行分析。研究发现,旅游与生计研究涉及多个学科,主要集中在生态、环境、管理和地理等学科领域;"乡村旅游"、"保护区旅游"、"文化旅游"、"海洋旅游"等是旅游与生计研究的热点议题;旅游与生计研究的知识基础主要包括"保护区管治"、"成本效益分析"、"乡村旅游"、"乡村发展"等研究领域。     

Environmental NGOs,dispossession, and the state: The ideology and praxis of African nature and development

Zimbabwe provides a significant context to examine the interplay of the new development rhetoric, the actions of powerful conservation organizations, donor policies, a relatively strong and stable government, and the empowerment of local communities. This interplay exists in diverse rural areas where the Communal Areas Management Program for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is in various stages of experimentation and implementation. CAMPFIRE has been described as a philosophy of sustainable rural development that enables rural communities to manage, and benefit directly form indigenous wildlife. It is the best known of African efforts to permit African communities to re- assert their management of selected natural resources. The program has the official support of the Zimbabwean government. Nonetheless, there are many potential areas of serious conflict. Three case studies are utilized to explore how the challenges of repossession of critical environmental resources by marginalized communities in the changing context of state and NGO relationships where international tourism is a revenue generator for both the private sector and government.     

Market Integration, Livelihood Transitions and Environmental Change in Areas of Low Agricultural Productivity: A Case Study from Morocco

Rural areas of the developing world have become increasingly integrated into the world economy through both production and consumption during the last decades. This growing integration shapes the development of communities and influences their relationship to the natural environment. Where livelihoods are constrained by resource limitations and the productivity of labor in farm activities is low, it may result in a shift to nonfarm activities, which may under some conditions improve wellbeing and relieve pressure on natural resources. The possibility of such a “win-win” development pathway has important implications for development and environmental policy. In this article we use original qualitative and quantitative data to examine environmental and social changes during the last half century in a rural area of Morocco, seeking evidence of such a pathway. While our case study supports the hypothesis that nonfarm diversification in a context of resource scarcity allowed people to improve their material living conditions, the effects of economic integration and nonfarm diversification on the environment were mixed.     

山西省阳泉矿区农户可持续生计研究

矿产资源的开发,在支撑社会经济发展的同时,造成了区域资源和生态环境的改变,极大影响农户的生计方式和生活环境。基于高分辨率遥感影像分析了山西省阳泉矿区典型村庄煤矿开采前后的土地利用变化,基于可持续生计框架（Sustainable Livelihoods Framework,SLF）和参与式农村评估法（Participatory Rural Appraisal,PRA）,研究了矿区农户的生计动态及不同类型失地农户的生计可持续能力。结果表明：1）煤矿开采改变了村庄土地利用格局。耕地大面积减少,由占区域面积69.72%降为29.42%;工矿用地大幅度增加,由占区域面积7.51%增为25.01%;农村建设用地、林地、草地和水域均有不同程度的增加。2）农户的资本组合及生计方式随着煤矿开采呈现相应的动态变化,农户逐渐呈现兼业特性;不同类型失地农户的生计资本存在显著性差异。3）生计资本结构的不同造成农户生计可持续发展能力不平等,生计资本累计值越大,农户的生计可持续性越强。矿区农户生计的研究为促进农户生计资本合理配置、缓解矿区企业与农户利益冲突提供了科学依据。     

HIV/AIDS,Food Supplementation and Livelihood Programs in Uganda: A Way Forward?

Background

Over the last decade, health, nutrition and policy experts have become increasingly aware of the many ways in which food insecurity and HIV infection negatively impact and reinforce one another. In response, many organizations providing HIV care began supplying food aid to clients in need. Food supplementation, however, was quickly recognized as an unsustainable and incomplete intervention. Many HIV care organizations therefore developed integrated HIV and livelihood programs (IHLPs) to target the root causes of food insecurity.

Methods and Findings

We conducted a qualitative study using in-depth interviews with 21 key informants who worked at seven organizations providing HIV care, food aid, or IHLPs in Kampala, Uganda in 2007-2008 to better understand the impact of IHLPs on the well-being of people living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHAs) and the challenges in transitioning clients from food aid to IHLPs. There was strong consensus among those interviewed that IHLPs are an important intervention in addressing food insecurity and its adverse health consequences among PLWHAs. Key informants identified three main challenges in transitioning PLWHAs from food supplementation programs to IHLPs: (1) lack of resources (2) timing of the transition and (3) logistical considerations including geography and weather. Factors seen as contributing to the success of programs included: (1) close involvement of community leaders (2) close ties with local and national government (3) diversification of IHLP activities and (4) close integration with food supplementation programs, all linked through a central program of HIV care.

Conclusion

Health, policy and development experts should continue to strengthen IHLPs for participants in need. Further research is needed to determine when and how participants should be transitioned from food supplementation to IHLPs, and to determine how to better correlate measures of food insecurity with objective clinical outcomes so as to better evaluate program results.     

Utilizing livestock waste solids as bioresource for socio-economic sustainability: a report from rural India

This work illustrates the overview of vermitechnology as sustainable socio-economic venture for rural livelihood in some parts of State Rajasthan, India. The northern part of the State Rajasthan is rich in livestock population and animal husbandry is an integral part of rural livelihood. Traditionally, the livestock excreta which are produced in huge quantity either utilized as rural energy resources or manure in agriculture plots. In recent years, people of this region are utilizing livestock excreta as resources for vermicomposting to convert negligible wastes into some value-added products, i.e. vermicompost and earthworm biomass. The end-product not only valuable in terms of eco-sustainability but also appeared as economic venture for rural farmer communities. The overall scenario of vermitechnology in rural Rajasthan, India is presented by analyzing information collected through systematic studies (field observations, data collection form individual farmers, personal interviews etc.)     

Response to Drought Among Farmers and Herders in Southern Kajiado District, Kenya: A Comparison of 1972-1976 and 1994-1995

This article examines continuity and change in farming and herder communities' strategies for coping with food deficits in S.E. Kajiado District, Kenya, through a comparison of coping strategies reported in surveys conducted in 1977 and 1996. It provides empirical evidence of the dynamic responses that one rural society prone to recurrent drought-related food insecurity has made to the complex interactions between exogenous and local political, economic, social and demographic, and environmental processes. It demonstrates that although driving forces emanating from national and international scales create the broad context for developmental change, local processes mediate these. As these alter, so do the options available for coping with food insecurity. The availability of these options differs according to a person's age, gender, and socio-economic status. Such dynamism and differentiation is inherent in rural development and should inform development planners and those seeking to include monitoring of coping strategies as a component of famine early-warning systems.     

Food security versus biodiversity protection: an example of land-sharing from East Africa

The recent controversial debate on land-sharing versus land-sparing is clearly exemplified in the East African mountains, one of the most diverse biodiversity hotspots on our planet. In these areas, species richness is particularly concentrated in the mountain cloud forests which are surrounded by a sea of dry lowland savannas heavily encroached on by local communities. Sustainable land use practices in the lowlands, however, are necessary to safeguard the natural capital at higher elevations. The interdependence between sustainable land-use and conservation of biodiversity hotspots was underlined during a workshop held in the rural areas of Kenya, East Africa, early spring 2013. It was concluded that close links between livelihoods, natural capital and poverty remains a fundamental challenge in East Africa’s forest conservation efforts.     

Maintaining customary harvesting of freshwater resources: sustainable Indigenous livelihoods in the floodplains of northern Australia

Freshwater resources underpin multiple livelihood systems around the world, particularly in highly productive tropical floodplain regions. Sustaining Indigenous people’s access to freshwater resources for customary harvesting, while developing alternative livelihood strategies can be challenging. The sustainable livelihoods approach was applied to examine the ways in which multiple livelihoods in the East Alligator River floodplain region in northern Australia influence Aboriginal people’s access to freshwater resources for customary harvesting. Interviews with Aboriginal residents were conducted to understand changes to freshwater customary harvesting practices. The dominant floodplain-based livelihoods analysed were pastoralism, biodiversity conservation and tourism and they were found to generate both opportunities and constraints for sustaining freshwater customary harvesting. Opportunities were provided through facilitating regular access to floodplain country and opportunistic access for harvesting, which assists in sustaining bio-cultural knowledge. Partnerships developed through these mainstream livelihoods built human capacity that enhanced all livelihood resource capitals (natural, human, social, financial and physical). Three key ways the dominant livelihoods constrained access to key freshwater resources were identified. Tourism required sacrificing certain hunting places and had to accommodate recreational fishing pressure. The successful recovery of the saltwater crocodile population through biodiversity conservation policy has inadvertently reduced people’s customary access to in-stream resources. Pastoralism on the floodplain had restricted traditional floodplain burning practices associated with accessing aestivating long-necked turtles, affecting access and abundance. These findings highlight the need for the development of remote Indigenous livelihood strategies to make explicit their influences on freshwater customary harvesting practices, to better support their maintenance amongst multiple, non-customary floodplain livelihoods.     

利用农业生物多样性持续控制有害生物

农业生物多样性对保障全球粮食安全和农业可持续发展至关重要.人类在多样性的形成上发挥了关键作用,人类结合自然进化创造了遗传多样性、物种多样性和生态系统多样性.农业生物多样性发挥了很多社会经济和环境功能:保障粮食安全;维持农业生态系统可持续发展;赋予农村经济适变性.但当前人类毁灭农业生物多样性的速度更为惊人.在总结石油农业单一化种植的生态负效应、传统农业提倡“天人合一”的生态正效应的基础上,分析讨论了利用农业生物多样性持续控制有害生物的必要性和可行性,从生态系统多样性、物种多样性和种内遗传多样性3个层次,归纳了构建和恢复农田生物多样性的基本方法.基于病理学、生态学、营养学和生理学等学科领域,从群体异质效应、稀释效应、微生态效应、诱导抗性效应、物理阻隔效应、生理学效应和化感效应等7个方面,归纳了利用农业生物多样性持续控制有害生物的基础原理.寻求低投入、高效益、多样化和可持续的农业生产系统是当今世界许多科学家、决策者和生产者共同关心的问题.农业生物多样性具有重要的生态作用,在现代农业框架下,是合情合理构建持续、稳定、健康、高产的农田生态系统,持续控制有害生物的金钥匙.为此必须加强四方面的课题研究:各种作物之间的相生相克关系及其作用机理;各种有害生物的主要天敌种类、生物学、生态学特性及其适生环境;利用农业生物多样性全面、持续控制有害生物的农业生产模式;与其相配套的农艺措施与农业机械.     

城乡二元差异视角下横断山区县域尺度居民生计水平测度

城市化导致城乡居民生计差异凸显,区域尺度的居民生计研究需充分考虑该差异。采用可持续生计方法(SLA),基于县域尺度建立城乡差异化的居民生计测度体系,引入城乡差异因子测度了横断山区县域的居民生计水平。结果表明：(1)引入城乡差异因子能一定程度消除居民生计水平测度研究中城镇居民生计优势对区域整体生计水平的放大作用;(2)2000—2015年横断山区城乡二元性结构特征显著,期间城乡居民生计关键驱动因子差异明显,乡村居民生计发展逐步由自然资本驱动转变为物质资本驱动,城镇规模超过产业发展状况成为影响城镇居民生计发展的关键影响因子,城乡统筹来看,投资规模和信息获取能力开始愈发的显现其对于居民生计发展的积极作用;(3)横断山区县域居民生计水平总体偏低,发展动能总体不足,两极化发展趋势日益明显;(4)区域居民生计水平总体呈南高北低的空间分布格局,同海拔、坡度呈显著的负相关关系,区域内越是生计脆弱的县域,其居民生计发展越易受到自然环境的制约,同时县域居民生计水平同区域劳动力数量、经济规模显著正相关,劳动力充足、经济发展水平较高的县域其居民生计对自然环境扰动具有更强的韧性。总体来看引入城乡差异因子的可持续...