Sex‐biased oviposition by a nursery pollinator on a gynodioecious host plant: Implications for breeding system evolution and evolution of mutualism

Dioecy, a breeding system where individual plants are exclusively male or female, has evolved repeatedly. Extensive theory describes when dioecy should arise from hermaphroditism, frequently through gynodioecy, where females and hermaphrodites coexist, and when gynodioecy should be stable. Both pollinators and herbivores often prefer the pollen‐bearing sex, with sex‐specific fitness effects that can affect breeding system evolution. Nursery pollination, where adult insects pollinate flowers but their larvae feed on plant reproductive tissues, is a model for understanding mutualism evolution but could also yield insights into plant breeding system evolution. We studied a recently established nursery pollination interaction between native Hadena ectypa moths and introduced gynodioecious Silene vulgaris plants in North America to assess whether oviposition was biased toward females or hermaphrodites, which traits were associated with oviposition, and the effect of oviposition on host plant fitness. Oviposition was hermaphrodite‐biased and associated with deeper flowers and more stems. Sexual dimorphism in flower depth, a trait also associated with oviposition on the native host plant (Silene stellata), explained the hermaphrodite bias. Egg‐receiving plants experienced more fruit predation than plants that received no eggs, but relatively few fruits were lost, and egg receipt did not significantly alter total fruit production at the plant level. Oviposition did not enhance pollination; egg‐receiving flowers usually failed to expand and produce seeds. Together, our results suggest that H. ectypa oviposition does not exert a large fitness cost on host plants, sex‐biased interactions can emerge from preferences developed on a hermaphroditic host species, and new nursery pollination interactions can arise as negative or neutral rather than as mutualistic for the plant.     

Lotus hosts delimit the mutualism–parasitism continuum of Bradyrhizobium

Symbioses are modelled as evolutionarily and ecologically variable with fitness outcomes for hosts shifting on a continuum from mutualism to parasitism. In a classic example, rhizobia fix atmospheric nitrogen for legume hosts in exchange for photosynthetic carbon. Rhizobial infection often enhances legume growth, but hosts also incur interaction costs because of root tissues and or metabolites needed to support symbionts in planta. Rhizobia exhibit genetic variation in symbiotic effectiveness, and ecological changes in light or mineral nitrogen availability can also alter the benefits of rhizobial infection for hosts. The net effects of symbiosis thus can range from mutualistic to parasitic in a context‐dependent manner. We tested the extent of the mutualism–parasitism continuum in the legume–rhizobium symbiosis and the degree to which host investment can shape its limits. We infected Lotus strigosus with sympatric Bradyrhizobium genotypes that vary in symbiotic effectiveness. Inoculations occurred under different mineral nitrogen and light regimes spanning ecologically relevant ranges. Net growth benefits of Bradyrhizobium infection varied for Lotus and were reduced or eliminated dependent on Bradyrhizobium genotype, mineral nitrogen and light availability. But we did not detect parasitism. Lotus proportionally reduced investment in Bradyrhizobium as net benefit from infection decreased. Lotus control occurred primarily after infection, via fine‐scale modulation of nodule growth, as opposed to control over initial nodulation. Our results show how divestment of symbiosis by Lotus can prevent shifts to parasitism.     

Non‐pollinating Fig Wasps Decrease Pollinator and Seed Production in Ficus andicola (Moraceae)

Fig trees ( Ficus spp.) and Agaonine fig‐wasps participate in an obligate mutualism. Fig wasps can only develop within fig inflorescences (syconia) and they are the only organisms capable of pollinating fig flowers. Other non‐pollinating wasps that lay eggs by inserting their ovipositors from the outside can also develop in syconia. These parasitic wasps may be parasitoids of either pollinating or other non‐pollinating wasps, or form galls in fig flowers or other tissues. Depending on this interaction, parasitic wasps may have various effects on the production of pollinating wasps and seeds. Wasps in the genus Idarnes, which parasitize New World figs (subgenus Urostigma), have an effect on wasp production but not on seed production. Heterandrium spp., which have short ovipositors and lay on external flowers, are infrequent and no effect on seed production has been documented. In the Colombian Andes, Idarnes spp. and Heterandrium spp. are the most frequent parasites of the Ficus andicola — Pegoscapus sp. mutualism, affecting 62 and 43 percent of syconia, respectively. Controlling for other factors that influence wasp and seed production, such as number of foundresses, syconium size and tree, we found that Idarnes reduced pollinator production by almost half but did not reduce seed production, whereas Heterandrium reduced seed production by 40 percent, and marginally affected pollinator production. Our results provide the first clear documentation of Heterandrium spp. impact on fig seed production. Whether the relative abundance of this genus is a generalized phenomenon in montane forest remains to be determined.     

A non‐pollinating moth inflicts higher seed predation than two co‐pollinators in an obligate pollination mutualism

1. Mutualisms are relationships of mutual exploitation, in which interacting species receive a net benefit from their association. In obligate pollination mutualisms (OPMs), female pollinators move pollen between the flowers of a single plant species and oviposit eggs within the female flowers that they visit. 2. Competition between co‐occurring pollinator species is predicted to increase pollinator virulence, i.e. laying more eggs or consuming more seeds per fruit. Plants involved in OPMs frequently host various non‐pollinating seed parasites and parasitoids that may influence the outcome of the mutualism. Quantifying the prevalence of parasites and parasitoids and competition between pollinators is important for understanding the factors that influence OPM evolutionary stability. 3. This study investigated the pollination mutualism occurring between the leaf flower plant, Breynia oblongifolia, and its co‐pollinating Epicephala moths. A third moth, Herpystis, also occurs in B. oblongifolia fruits as a non‐pollinating seed parasite. 4. Breynia oblongifolia fruits were collected to quantify seed predation and compare seed predation costs between the three moth species. Results showed that the larvae of the two pollinator species consume similar numbers of seeds, and that adults deposit similar numbers of eggs per flower. As such, no evidence of increases in virulent behaviours was detected as a result of competition between co‐pollinators. 5. By contrast, the seed parasite Herpystis consumed more seeds than either pollinator species, and fruit crops with a high proportion of Herpystis had significantly lower net seed production. 6. This work adds to the growing understanding of the ecology and dynamics of plant–pollinator mutualisms.     

Strategic Management of an Invasive Ant‐scale Mutualism Enables Recovery of a Threatened Tropical Tree Species

Mutualisms between invasive ants and honeydew‐producing insects can have widespread negative effects on natural ecosystems. This is becoming an increasingly serious problem worldwide, causing certain ecosystems to change radically. Management of these abundant and influential mutualistic species is essential if the host ecosystem is to recover to its former non‐invaded status. This negative effect is particularly prevalent on some tropical islands, including Cousine Island, Seychelles. On this island, the invasive ant Pheidole megacephala has caused serious indirect damage to the threatened native Pisonia grandis trees via a mutualism with an invasive scale insect, Pulvinaria urbicola. We aimed to suppress the ant, thereby decoupling the mutualism and enabling recovery of the Pisonia trees. We treated all areas where ant pressure was high with a selective formicidal bait, which was deployed in custom‐made bait stations designed to avoid risk of treatment to endemic fauna. In the treated area, ant foraging activity was reduced by 93 percent and was followed by a 100 percent reduction in scale insect density. Abundance of endemic herbivorous insects and herbivorous activity increased significantly, however, after the decline in mutualistic species densities. Despite the native herbivore increase, there was considerable overall improvement in Pisonia shoot condition and an observed increase in foliage density. Our results demonstrate the benefit of strategic management of highly mutualistic alien species to the native Pisonia trees. It also supports the idea that area‐wide suppression is a feasible alternative to eradication for achieving positive conservation management at the level of the forest ecosystem.     

Parasites and mutualism function: measuring enemy‐free space in a fig–pollinator symbiosis

Mutualisms involve cooperation between species and underpin several ecosystem functions. However, there is also conflict between mutualists, because their interests are not perfectly aligned. In addition, most mutualisms are exploited by parasites. Here, we study the interplay between cooperation, conflict and parasitism in the mutualism between fig trees and their pollinator wasps. Conflict occurs because each fig ovary can nurture either one seed or one pollinator offspring and, while fig trees benefit directly from seeds and pollinator offspring (pollen vectors), pollinators only benefit directly from pollinator offspring. The mechanism(s) of conflict resolution is debated, but must explain the widespread observation that pollinators develop in inner, and seeds in outer, layers of fig flowers. We recently suggested a role for non‐pollinating figs wasps (NPFWs) that are natural enemies or competitors of the pollinators and lay their eggs through the fig wall. Most NPFW offspring develop in outer and middle layer flowers, suggesting that inner flowers provide enemy‐free space for pollinator offspring. Here, we test the hypothesis that NPFWs cannot reach inner flowers, by measuring wasp and fig morphology at the species‐specific times of NPFW attack in the field. We found that three species of Sycoscapter and Philotrypesis wasps that parasitise pollinators could reach 34–73%, 75–92% and 82–97% of fig ovaries, respectively. Meanwhile, Eukobelea and Pseudidarnes gall‐formers, despite having shorter ovipositors, can access almost all fig flowers (93–99% and 100%), because they attack smaller (younger) fig fruits. Our mechanistic results from ovipositing wasps support spatial patterns of wasp offspring segregation within figs to suggest that inner ovules provide enemy‐free‐space for pollinators. This may contribute to mutualism stability by helping select for pollinators to avoid laying eggs where they are likely to be parasitised. These outer flowers then remain free to develop as seeds, promoting mutualism persistence.     

Evaluating the Qualitative Effectiveness of a Novel Pollinator: a Case Study of Two Endemic Hawaiian Plants

In situations where native mutualists have become extinct, non‐native species may partner with remnant native species. However, non‐native mutualists may differ behaviorally from extinct native mutualists. In the case of pollination, novel relationships between natives and non‐natives could differ both quantitatively and qualitatively from native–native relationships. In Hawai'i, the non‐native Japanese White‐eye (Zosterops japonicus) has largely replaced endemic birds as pollinator of the endemic Clermontia parviflora and C. montis‐loa. We surveyed Clermontia patches and found that they ranged from 106 to 1198 m in diameter. We performed manual pollination of flowers with pollen taken from plants at five distance categories, ranging from 0 (self‐fertilization) to 20 km, and examined the germination of resulting seeds. We used radiotelemetry to estimate daily Japanese White‐eye movement distances. Percent germination of seeds after short‐ to intermediate‐distance pollination crosses (i.e., 20–1200 m, or intra‐patch pollen transfer distances) significantly exceeded germination of seeds from selfed trials for C. parviflora. No significant differences in germination rates among treatments were detected for C. montis‐loa. The maximum daily movement distances of radio‐tracked birds were generally <1 km. Together, these results suggest that this novel pollinator may be an effective mutualist for both Clermontia species. This study serves as an example of research examining qualitative components of novel mutualism, which are generally neglected relative to quantitative components.     

A specialised pollination system using nectar‐seeking thynnine wasps in Caladenia nobilis (Orchidaceae)

• Caladenia is a diverse Australian genus that is exceptional among orchids in having both species pollinated by food‐seeking and sexually deceived insects. Here, we investigated the pollination of Caladenia nobilis, a species predicted to be food‐deceptive due to its large, cream‐coloured and apparently nectarless flowers.
• Pollinator observations were made using experimental clumps of flowers. Measurements of floral colour were undertaken with a spectrometer, nectar was tested using GC‐MS, and reproductive success was quantified for 2 years.
• While C. nobilis attracted nine species of insect, only males of the thynnine wasp Rhagigaster discrepans exhibited the correct size and behaviour to remove and deposit pollen. Male R. discrepans attempted to feed from the surface of the labellum, often crawling to multiple flowers, but showed no evidence of sexual attraction. Most flowers produced little or no nectar, although some may provide enough sucrose to act as a meagre reward to pollinators. Floral colouration was similar to a related Caladenia species pollinated by sexual deception, although the sexually deceptive species had a dull‐red labellum. Reproductive success was generally low and highly variable between sites and years.
• In addition to most visitors being of inappropriate size for pollinia removal, the lack of response to the orchid by several co‐occurring species of thynnine wasp suggests filtering of potential pollinators at the attraction phase. Our discovery of a pollination strategy that may be intermediate between food deception and food reward raises the question, how many putatively rewardless orchids actually produce meagre amounts of nectar?

     

Indirect competitive effects of stemborers on a gall community

Interspecific competition between phytophagous insects using the same host plant occurs frequently and can strongly affect population densities of competing species. Competition between gallmakers and stemborers could be especially intense because both types of herbivore are unable to avoid competition by relocation during their immature stages. For apical meristem gallmakers the main result of competition is likely to be the interruption of resources to the gall by the stemborers' devouring of stem contents. The proximate effect of such competition could be to reduce gall size, thereby increasing the number of chambers per gall unit volume, and reducing the size and potential reproductive output of the gallformer. In addition, smaller galls may be more susceptible to attack from size‐limited parasitoids, resulting in a second indirect effect of competition. Using a community of galling and stemboring insects on the saltmarsh shrub Iva frutescens L. (Asteraceae), we measured for indirect effects of competition. We examined the primary indirect effect of competition on gall midge crowding and the secondary effects on parasitism rates and parasitoid guild composition. Results indicated that galls co‐occurring with stemborers were smaller, crowding of gall inhabitants was 22% greater, and the composition of the parasitoid guild was altered relative to galls on unbored stems. The overall parasitism rate was not different between galls on bored vs. unbored stems. These results show that competition resulting from the presence of stemborers has the potential to affect the gall midge Asphondylia borrichiae Rossi & Strong (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) and secondarily to affect its guild of hymenopteran parasitoids.     

Reproductive biology of a hummingbird‐pollinated Billbergia: light influence on pollinator behaviour and specificity in a Brazilian semi‐deciduous forest

• Ornithophily has evolved in parallel several times during evolution of angiosperms. Bird pollination is reported for 65 families, including Bromeliaceae. One of the most diverse bromeliad is Billbergia, which comprises species pollinated mainly by hummingbirds.
• Based on investigations on flowering phenology, morpho‐anatomy, volume and concentration of nectar, pollinators and breeding system, this paper explores the reproductive biology and pollinator specificity of B. distachia in a mesophytic semi‐deciduous forest of southeastern Brazil.
• The results have show that B. distachia is pollinated by a single species of hermit hummingbird, Phaethornis eurynome, which search for nectar produced by a septal nectary, where the secretory tissue is located above the placenta. The species is self‐incompatible. The combination of pollinator specificity, due to long corolla tubes that exclude visitation of short‐billed hummingbirds, complete self‐incompatibility and non‐territorial behaviour of pollinators, it is very important to reduce pollen loss and increase gene flow within population.
• Our results indicate that studies on pollination biology and reproduction are essential to understand the evolutionary history of pollination systems of plants since, at least in Billbergia, variation in the pollinator spectrum has been recorded for different habitats among Brazilian forests. Furthermore, according to our data, foraging of Phaethornis on flowers is independent of air temperature and humidity, while the main factor influencing hummingbird visitation is daylight. Considering current knowledge on climatic parameters influencing hummingbird foraging, pollination and reproductive biology of Neotropical flora and environment of the hermit hummingbird in tropical forests, new insights on plant–pollinator interaction are provided.

     

Active pollination favours sexual dimorphism in floral scent

Zoophilous flowers often transmit olfactory signals to attract pollinators. In plants with unisexual flowers, such signals are usually similar between the sexes because attraction of the same animal to both male and female flowers is essential for conspecific pollen transfer. Here, we present a remarkable example of sexual dimorphism in floral signal observed in reproductively highly specialized clades of the tribe Phyllantheae (Phyllanthaceae). These plants are pollinated by species-specific, seed-parasitic Epicephala moths (Gracillariidae) that actively collect pollen from male flowers and pollinate the female flowers in which they oviposit; by doing so, they ensure seeds for their offspring. We found that Epicephala-pollinated Phyllanthaceae plants consistently exhibit major qualitative differences in scent between male and female flowers, often involving compounds derived from different biosynthetic pathways. In a choice test, mated female Epicephala moths preferred the scent of male flowers over that of female flowers, suggesting that male floral scent elicits pollen-collecting behaviour. Epicephala pollination evolved multiple times in Phyllantheae, at least thrice accompanied by transition from sexual monomorphism to dimorphism in floral scent. This is the first example in which sexually dimorphic floral scent has evolved to signal an alternative reward provided by each sex, provoking the pollinator''s legitimate altruistic behaviour.     

Evolution of mutualism from parasitism in experimental virus populations

While theory suggests conditions under which mutualism may evolve from parasitism, few studies have observed this transition empirically. Previously, we evolved Escherichia coli and the filamentous bacteriophage M13 in 96‐well microplates, an environment in which the ancestral phage increased the growth rate and yield of the ancestral bacteria. In the majority of populations, mutualism was maintained or even enhanced between phages and coevolving bacteria; however, these same phages evolved traits that harmed the ancestral E. coli genotype. Here, we set out to determine if mutualism could evolve from this new parasitic interaction. To do so, we chose six evolved phage populations from the original experiment and used them to establish new infections of the ancestral bacteria. After 20 passages, mutualism evolved in almost all replicates, with the remainder growing commensally. Many phage populations also evolved to benefit both their local, evolving bacteria and the ancestral bacteria, though these phages were less beneficial to their co‐occurring hosts than phages that harm the ancestral bacteria. These results demonstrate the rapid recovery of mutualism from parasitism, and we discuss how our findings relate to the evolution of phages that enhance the virulence of bacterial pathogens.     

Experimental evolution of infectious behaviour in a facultative ectoparasite

Parasitic lifestyles have evolved many times in animals, but how such life‐history strategies evolved from free‐living ancestors remains a great puzzle. Transitional symbiotic strategies, such as facultative parasitism, are hypothesized evolutionary stepping stones towards obligate parasitism. However, to consider this hypothesis, heritable genetic variation in infectious behaviour of transitional symbiotic strategies must exist. In this study, we experimentally evolved infectivity and estimated the additive genetic variation in a facultative parasite. We performed artificial selection experiments in which we selected for either increased or decreased propensity to infect in a facultatively parasitic mite (Macrocheles muscaedomesticae). Here, infectiousness was expressed in terms of mite attachment to a host (Drosophila hydei) and modelled as a threshold trait. Mites responded positively to selection for increased infectivity; realized heritability of infectious behaviour was significantly different from zero and estimated to be 16.6% (±4.4% SE). Further, infection prevalence was monitored for 20 generations post‐selection. Selected lines continued to display relatively high levels of infection, demonstrating a degree of genetic stability in infectiousness. Our study is the first to provide an estimate of heritability and additive genetic variation for infectious behaviour in a facultative parasite, which suggests natural selection can act upon facultative strategies with important implications for the evolution of parasitism.     

Influence of oxidative homeostasis on bacterial density and cost of infection in Drosophila–Wolbachia symbioses

The evolution of symbioses along the continuum between parasitism and mutualism can be influenced by the oxidative homeostasis, that is the balance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant molecules. Indeed, ROS can contribute to the host immune defence to regulate symbiont populations, but are also toxic. This interplay between ROS and symbiosis is notably exemplified by recent results in arthropod–Wolbachia interactions. Wolbachia are symbiotic bacteria involved in a wide range of interactions with their arthropods hosts, from facultative, parasitic associations to obligatory, mutualistic ones. In this study, we used Drosophila–Wolbachia associations to determine whether the oxidative homeostasis plays a role in explaining the differences between phenotypically distinct arthropod–Wolbachia symbioses. We used Drosophila lines with different Wolbachia infections and measured the effects of pro‐oxidant (paraquat) and antioxidant (glutathione) treatments on the Wolbachia density and the host survival. We show that experimental manipulations of the oxidative homeostasis can reduce the cost of the infection through its effect on Wolbachia density. We discuss the implication of this result from an evolutionary perspective and argue that the oxidative homeostasis could underlie the evolution of tolerance and dependence on Wolbachia.     

Geographic variation of reproductive traits and competition for pollinators in a bird‐pollinated plant

Geographic variation in the reproductive traits of animal‐pollinated plants can be shaped by spatially variable selection imposed by differences in the local pollination environment. We investigated this process in Babiana ringens (Iridaceae), an enigmatic species from the Western Cape region of South Africa. B. ringens has evolved a specialized perch facilitating cross‐pollination by sunbirds and displays striking geographic variation in perch size and floral traits. Here, we investigate whether this variation can be explained by geographic differences in the pollinator communities. We measured floral and inflorescence traits, and abiotic variables (N, P, C, and rainfall) and made observations of sunbirds in populations spanning the range of B. ringens. In each population, we recorded sunbird species identity and measured visitation rates, interfloral pollen transfer, and whether the seed set of flowers was pollen limited. To evaluate whether competition from co‐occurring sunbird‐pollinated species might reduce visitation, we quantified nectar rewards in B. ringens and of other co‐flowering bird‐pollinated species in local communities in which populations occurred. Variation in abiotic variables was not associated with geographical variation of traits in B. ringens. Malachite sunbirds were the dominant visitor (97% of visits) and populations with larger‐sized traits exhibited higher visitation rates, more between‐flower pollen transfer and set more seed. No sunbirds were observed in four populations, all with smaller‐sized traits. Sunbird visitation to B. ringens was not associated with local sunbird activity in communities, but sunbird visitation was negatively associated with the amount of B. ringens sugar relative to the availability of alternative nectar sources. Our study provides evidence that B. ringens populations with larger floral traits are visited more frequently by sunbirds, and we propose that visitation rates to B. ringens may be influenced, in part, by competition with other sunbird‐pollinated species.     

Diversification in the use of resources by Idarnes species: bypassing functional constraints in the fig–fig wasp interaction

Mutualisms such as the fig–fig wasp mutualism are generally exploited by parasites. We demonstrate that amongst nonpollinating fig wasps (NPFWs) parasitic on Ficus citrifolia, a species of Idarnes galls flowers and another species feeds on galls induced by other wasps killing their larvae. The galling wasp inserts its ovipositor through the fig wall into the fig cavity. The ovipositor then follows a sinuous path and is introduced through the stigma and style of the flower. The egg is deposited between the integument and nucellus, in the exact location where the pollinating mutualistic wasp would have laid its egg. Gall induction is a complex process. In contrast, the path followed by the ovipositor of the other species is straightforward: attacking a larva within a developed gall poses different constraints. Shifts in feeding regime have occurred repeatedly in NPFWs. Monitoring traits associated with such repeated evolutionary shifts may help understand underlying functional constraints. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 106 , 114–122.     

Adaptations for insect‐trapping in brood‐site pollinated Colocasia (Araceae)

The Araceae include both taxa with rewarding and deceptive trap pollination systems. Here we report on a genus in which rewarding and imprisonment of the pollinators co‐occur. We studied the pollination of four species of Colocasia in Southwest China and investigated the morpho‐anatomical adaptations of the spathe related to the attraction and capture of pollinators. All four species were pollinated by drosophilid flies of the genus Colocasiomyia. The flies are temporally arrested within the inflorescence and departure is only possible after pollen release. Trapping of the flies is accomplished by the closure of the spathe during anthesis. Moreover, in two species the spathe is covered with papillate epidermal cells known to form slippery surfaces in deceptive traps of Araceae. However, in Colocasia the papillae proved not slippery for the flies. The morpho‐anatomical properties of the spathe epidermis indicate that it is an elaborate osmophore and serves for the emission of odours only. Despite its similarity to deceptive traps of other aroids, Colocasia and Colocasiomyia have a close symbiotic relationship, as the attracted flies use the inflorescence as a site for mating and breeding. The trap mechanism has presumably evolved independently in Colocasia and is supposed to facilitate more efficient pollen export.     

Habitat mediates the outcome of a cleaning symbiosis for a facultatively burrowing crayfish

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Seed dispersal of Diospyros virginiana in the past and the present: Evidence for a generalist evolutionary strategy

Several North American trees are hypothesized to have lost their co‐evolved seed disperser during the late‐Pleistocene extinction and are therefore considered anachronistic. We tested this hypothesis for the American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) by studying the effects of gut passage of proposed seed dispersers on seedling survival and growth, natural fruiting characteristics, and modern animal consumption patterns. We tested gut passage effects on persimmon seeds using three native living species, the raccoon (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), and coyote (Canis latrans), and two Pleistocene analogs; the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Persimmon seeds excreted by raccoons, coyotes, and elephants survived gut transit. Gut passage did not affect sprouting success, but did tend to decrease time to sprout and increase seedling quality. Under field conditions, persimmon fruits were palatable on the parent tree and on the ground for an equal duration, but most fruits were consumed on the ground. Seven vertebrate species fed upon persimmon fruits, with the white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)—a species not capable of dispersing persimmon seeds—comprising over 90% of detections. Conversely, potential living seed dispersers were rarely detected. Our results suggest the American persimmon evolved to attract a variety of seed dispersers and thus is not anachronistic. However, human‐induced changes in mammal communities could be affecting successful seed dispersal. We argue that changes in the relative abundance of mammals during the Anthropocene may be modifying seed dispersal patterns, leading to potential changes in forest community composition.