Using information in taxonomists’ heads to resolve hagfish and lamprey relationships and recapitulate craniate–vertebrate phylogenetic history

In 1806, a hypothesis in which hagfishes and lampreys were classified as the taxon Cyclostomi was proposed on the basis of shared morphological traits. That ‘monophyletic cyclostome’ classification prevailed into the twentieth century and has persisted until the present. In 1958, a study involving coordinate grid transformations to analyse head ontogenies for living and fossil craniates was published. Results obtained in that evolutionary–developmental analysis revealed that extant hagfishes and extinct heterostracans developed substantially differently from closely related extant and extinct agnathans and warranted recognition as a distinct lineage. In 1977, a classification in which lampreys and jawed vertebrates formed a group exclusively from hagfishes was proposed on the basis of neontological, morphological and molecular traits. This ‘paraphyletic cyclostome’ classification garnered acceptance among some taxonomists and has persisted alongside the monophyletic cyclostome classification until the present. We applied geometric morphometrics to data obtained from the 1958 evolutionary–developmental analysis, to objectively test and confirm these overlooked and underappreciated results. We demonstrated that the paraphyletic cyclostome classification was conceived at least 19 years earlier than usually acknowledged. Our reanalysis emphasises that the debate on whether the Cyclostomata is monophyletic or paraphyletic must be resolved formally on the basis of principles and practices for phylogenetic systematic analysis including fossil data.     

Molecular phylogenetics of the spider infraorder Mygalomorphae using nuclear rRNA genes (18S and 28S): conflict and agreement with the current system of classification

Mygalomorph spiders, which include the tarantulas, trapdoor spiders, and their kin, represent one of three main spider lineages. Mygalomorphs are currently classified into 15 families, comprising roughly 2500 species and 300 genera. The few published phylogenies of mygalomorph relationships are based exclusively on morphological data and reveal areas of both conflict and congruence, suggesting the need for additional phylogenetic research utilizing new character systems. As part of a larger combined evidence study of global mygalomorph relationships, we have gathered approximately 3.7 kb of rRNA data (18S and 28S) for a sample of 80 genera, representing all 15 mygalomorph families. Taxon sampling was particularly intensive across families that are questionable in composition-Cyrtaucheniidae and Nemesiidae. The following primary results are supported by both Bayesian and parsimony analyses of combined matrices representing multiple 28S alignments: (1) the Atypoidea, a clade that includes the families Atypidae, Antrodiaetidae, and Mecicobothriidae, is recovered as a basal lineage sister to all other mygalomorphs, (2) diplurids and hexathelids form a paraphyletic grade at the base of the non-atypoid clade, but neither family is monophyletic in any of our analyses, (3) a clade consisting of all sampled nemesiids, Microstigmata and the cyrtaucheniid genera Kiama, Acontius, and Fufius is consistently recovered, (4) other sampled cyrtaucheniids are fragmented across three separate clades, including a monophyletic North American Euctenizinae and a South African clade, (5) of the Domiothelina, only idiopids are consistently recovered as monophyletic; ctenizids are polyphyletic and migids are only weakly supported. The Domiothelina is not monophyletic. The molecular results we present are consistent with more recent hypotheses of mygalomorph relationship; however, additional work remains before mygalomorph classification can be formally reassessed with confidence-increased taxonomic sampling and the inclusion of additional character systems (more genes and morphology) are required.     

The phylogeny, evolution, and classification of the genus Globba and tribe Globbeae (Zingiberaceae): appendages do matter

The genus Globba (100 species) is one of the largest genera in the primarily tropical Zingiberaceae. Globba along with the small genera Gagnepainia, Hemiorchis, and Mantisia comprise the Globbeae, one of the two tribes of subfamily Zingiberoideae. Traditional infrageneric classification in Globba has focused on the number of anther appendages: zero, two, or four. Parsimony and Bayesian analyses were conducted on nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and plastid trnK-matK data from a broad sampling of Globba and related genera. Results show Mantisia to be monophyletic but nested within Globba, while Hemiorchis and Gagnepainia are monophyletic genera that are sister to each other. Anther appendage number and shape, along with inflorescence and fruit morphology, are the most important characters for understanding evolutionary relationships in Globba. A new infrageneric classification system for Globba, recognizing three subgenera and seven sections is presented. The four species of Mantisia are formally transferred into Globba but retained as a distinct section. Within Globba, a notable biogeographic boundary is seen at the Isthmus of Kra in southern Thailand.     

Phylogeny of thrips (Insecta: Thysanoptera) based on five molecular loci

The order Thysanoptera (Paraneoptera), commonly known as thrips, displays a wide range of behaviours, and includes several pest species. The classification and suggested relationships among these insects remain morphologically based, and have never been evaluated formally with a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic analysis. We tested the monophyly of the suborders, included families and the recognized subfamilies, and investigated their relationships. Phylogenies were reconstructed based upon 5299 bp from five genetic loci: 18S ribosomal DNA, 28S ribosomal DNA, Histone 3, Tubulin‐alpha I and cytochrome oxidase c subunit I. Ninety‐nine thrips species from seven of the nine families, all six subfamilies and 70 genera were sequenced. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses all strongly support a monophyletic Tubulifera and Terebrantia. The families Phlaeothripidae, Aeolothripidae, Melanthripidae and Thripidae are recovered as monophyletic. The relationship of Aeolothripidae and Merothripidae to the rest of Terebrantia is equivocal. Molecular data support previous suggestions that Aeolothripidae or Merothripidae could be a sister to the rest of Terebrantia. Four of the six subfamilies are recovered as monophyletic. The two largest subfamilies, Phlaeothripinae and Thripinae, are paraphyletic and require further study to understand their internal relationships.     

A molecular phylogeny of fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera): origins and host associations

Siphonaptera (fleas) is a highly specialized order of holometabolous insects comprising ～2500 species placed in 16 families. Despite a long history of extensive work on flea classification and biology, phylogenetic relationships among fleas are virtually unknown. We present the first formal analysis of flea relationships based on a molecular matrix of four loci (18S ribosomal DNA, 28S ribosomal DNA, Cytochrome Oxidase II, and Elongation Factor 1‐alpha) for 128 flea taxa from around the world representing 16 families, 25 subfamilies, 26 tribes, and 83 flea genera with eight outgroups. Trees were reconstructed using direct optimization and maximum likelihood techniques. Our analysis supports Tungidae as the most basal flea lineage, sister group to the remainder of the extant fleas. Pygiopsyllomorpha is monophyletic, as are the constituent families Lycopsyllidae, Pygiopsyllidae, and Stivaliidae, with a sister group relationship between the latter two families. Macropsyllidae is resolved as sister group to Coptopsyllidae with moderate nodal support. Stephanociricidae is monophyletic, as are the two constituent subfamilies Stephanocircinae and Craneopsyllinae. Vermipsyllidae is placed as sister group to Jordanopsylla. Rhopalopsyllidae is monophyletic as are the two constituent subfamilies Rhopalopsyllinae and Parapsyllinae. Hystrichopsyllidae is paraphyletic with Hystrichopsyllini placed as sister to some species of Anomiopsyllini and Ctenopariini placed as sister to Carterettini. Ctenophthalmidae is grossly paraphyletic with the family broken into seven lineages dispersed on the tree. Most notably, Anomiopsyllini is paraphyletic. Pulicidae and Chimaeropsyllidae are both monophyletic and these families are sister groups. Ceratophyllomorpha is monophyletic and includes Ischnopsyllidae, Ceratophyllidae, and Leptopsyllidae. Leptopsyllidae is paraphyletic as are its constituent subfamilies Amphipsyllinae and Leptopsyllinae and the tribes Amphipsyllini and Leptopsyllini. Ischnopsyllidae is monophyletic. Ceratophyllidae is monophyletic, with a monophyletic Dactypsyllinae nested within Ceratophyllinae, rendering the latter group paraphyletic. Mapping of general host associations on our topology reveals an early association with mammals with four independent shifts to birds. © The Willi Hennig Society 2008.     

Paraphyletic taxa and taxonomic chaining: evaluating the classification of braconine wasps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) using 28S D2-3 rDNA sequences and morphological characters

The parasitoid wasp subfamily Braconinae is dominated by the type genus Bracon , a genus which probably now contains more than 1000 described species and no reliable subgeneric groupings. By analysing 28S D2-3 rDNA sequences in representative braconines we show that the genus is paraphyletic. It is unlikely that sufficient molecular data will be amassed, or new morphological characters discovered, in the foreseeable future to divide this huge amorphous genus into reciprocally monophyletic clades. As we believe that it is unsatisfactory to leave this situation as it stands we propose that Bracon should be treated formally as a likely paraphyletic taxon, and we argue that the ICZN should consider creating such a category. On the basis of our estimated phylogeny we also propose a revised classification for this subfamily that avoids paraphyletic tribes and subtribes, replacing several of these with informal genus groups.     

ON SPECIES and OTHER TAXA

Abstract— It is argued that taxa, whether Linnaean or phylogenetic, belong to Popper's worlds 2 and 3, the worlds of knowledge, but that they represent entities residing in world 1, the world of objects, namely, classes of living beings. The Linnaean taxa are concepts, and thus untestable, whereas phylogenetic taxa are statements, the monophyletic taxa being true, and the paraphyletic and polyphyletic ones false statements. The taxa are neither strictly nor numerically universal statements, but probabilistic ones which cannot be falsified by single observations. It is suggested that the classical "species problem" is due to the fact that "species" has been used in three different senses. First, traditionally it has been assumed that the specific "essence" of an organism is that by which it is what it is. When we know the species, we know the organism. Second, the species are terminal taxa in the phylogenetic hierarchy. This implies that it is only a very small part of the "essence" of the organism which distinguishes the species. The remaining part characterizes the succession of superior taxa in the phylogenetic lineage which ends with the species in question. Third, the species has been regarded to be the "evolutionary unit." This idea may be refuted for two reasons: (1) since concepts and statements cannot evolve, species cannot evolve either, and (2) it is generally in very small isolated populations that evolutionary innovations are first established. In Linnean systematics the superior taxa are allotted categorical rank. The fact that the classification is constrained by this conventional stipulation implies that the superior taxa are often man-made artifacts. In the phylogenetic hierarchy, composed of monophyletic taxa, the ontological states of the taxa is completely independent of their numerical rank; the kingdom is as "real" as the species.     

THE HIGHER CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER EMBIOPTERA: A CLADISTIC ANALYSIS

Abstract— A matrix of 41 Embiid taxa (representing the 8 formally recognized families of the Order) and 36 characters were cladistically analysed as a first attempt for understanding the higher classification of the Order Embioptera. The resulting trees were rooted with Clothodidae as the sister group of the other Embioptera. The results suggest that the current classification contains several artificial groups. With the rooting used, only Anisembiidae and Australembiidae are monophyletic. Embiidae is polyphyletic, as Australembiidae+ Notoligotomidae, Enveja (incertae sedis) and Oligotomidae+Teratembiidae appear within Embiidae, and the "embiid" Microembia appears within Notoligotomidae. Oligotomidae is paraphyletic in terms of Teratembiidae. Four of the genera included in the analysis are paraphyletic: Mesembia, Chelicerca (in terms of Dactylocerca and Pelorembia ), Aposthonia (in terms of Oligotoma ), and Metoligotoma (in terms of Australembia ). Pelorembia and Dactylocerca are synonymized with Chelicerca .     

基于matR基因序列分析的山茶科系统关系

通过线粒体matR基因序列分析探讨了山茶科的分类学范围和系统演化关系。结果显示,传统山茶科的两个核心——山茶亚科（Theoideae或Camellioideae）和厚皮香亚科（Ternstroemioideae）不构成姐妹群关系,山茶亚科是一个支持率很高的单系类群,厚皮香亚科没有形成单系;山茶亚科下可区分出3个明显的分支,基部的分支由紫茎属（Stewartia）和舟柄茶属（Hartia）组成,木荷属（Schima）、美洲荷属（Franklirda）和美国大头茶属（Gordonia）构成第2个分支,该分支与由山茶属（Camellia）、核果茶属（Pyrenaria）、多瓣核果茶属（Parapyrenaria）、石笔木属（Tutcheria）、大头荣属（Polyspora）和圆籽荷属（Aptersperma）组成的第3个分支互为姐妹群。研究结果很好地支持了Prince和Parks等学者提出的的狭义山茶科（仅含山茶亚科）和狭义大头茶属的概念以及科下3个族（紫茎族Stewartieae、大头茶族Gordonieae和山茶族Theeae）的划分。但本研究更为清晰地揭示了科下3个族间的系统关系,即紫茎族是最基部的分支,山茶族与大头茶族间有更近的亲缘关系。同时,本文认为,厚皮香（亚）科是否为单系类群值得进一步研究。     

A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of tiger beetles (Coleoptera,Carabidae, Cicindelinae)

Tiger beetles are a remarkable group that captivates amateur entomologists, taxonomists and evolutionary biologists alike. This diverse clade of beetles comprises about 2300 currently described species found across the globe. Despite the charisma and scientific interest of this lineage, remarkably few studies have examined its phylogenetic relationships with large taxon sampling. Prior phylogenetic studies have focused on relationships within cicindeline tribes or genera, and none of the studies have included sufficient taxon sampling to conclusively examine broad species patterns across the entire subfamily. Studies that have attempted to reconstruct higher‐level relationships of Cicindelinae have yielded conflicting results. Here, we present the first taxonomically comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Cicindelinae to date, with the goal of creating a framework for future studies focusing on this important insect lineage. We utilized all available published molecular data, generating a final concatenated dataset including 328 cicindeline species, with molecular data sampled from six protein‐coding gene fragments and three ribosomal gene fragments. Our maximum‐likelihood phylogenetic inferences recover Cicindelinae as sister to the wrinkled bark beetles of the subfamily Rhysodinae. This new phylogenetic hypothesis for Cicindelinae contradicts our current understanding of tiger beetle phylogenetic relationships, with several tribes, subtribes and genera being inferred as paraphyletic. Most notably, the tribe Manticorini is recovered nested within Platychilini including the genera Amblycheila Say, Omus Eschscholtz, Picnochile Motschulsky and Platychile Macleay. The tribe Megacephalini is recovered as paraphyletic due to the placement of the monophyletic subtribe Oxycheilina as sister to Cicindelini, whereas the monophyletic Megacephalina is inferred as sister to Oxycheilina, Cicindelini and Collyridini. The tribe Collyridini is paraphyletic with the subtribes Collyridina and Tricondylina in one clade, and Ctenostomina in a second one. The tribe Cicindelini is recovered as monophyletic although several genera are inferred as para‐ or polyphyletic. Our results provide a novel phylogenetic framework to revise the classification of tiger beetles and to encourage the generation of focused molecular datasets that will permit investigation of the evolutionary history of this lineage through space and time.     

Hennig und der ursprung der tetrapoda

Hennig’s principle of analysis of characters is the best available method at present to analyse the relationship within one group or between groups. The analysis of characters has to be separated clearly from their phylogenetic and classificatory interpretation. New terms have been proposed to distinguish the status of classification of groups (synapogen, symplesiogen, paragen) from the character analysis (synapomorph etc.) and from its phylogenetic development (monophyletic, paraphyletic, polyphyletic). The origin of tetrapods is used as an example to show that every scheme of relationship depends on the use and evaluation of characters, the accepted homologies. A stabile classification is thus an illusion. No absolute criterion exists to recognize homologies.     

Mecoptera is paraphyletic: multiple genes and phylogeny of Mecoptera and Siphonaptera

Phylogenetic relationships among members of the Mecoptera and Siphonaptera were inferred from DNA sequence data. Four loci (18S and 28S ribosomal DNA, cytochrome oxidase II and elongation factor-1α) were sequenced for 69 taxa selected to represent major flea and mecopteran lineages. Phylogenetic analyses of these data support a paraphyletic Mecoptera with two major lineages: Nannochoristidae + (Siphonaptera + Boreidae) and Meropidae + ((Choristidae + Apteropanorpidae) (Panorpidae + (Panorpidae + Bittacidae))). The flea family Ctenophthalmidae is paraphyletic, and the Ceratophylloidea is monophyletic. Morphological evidence is discussed which is congruent with the placement of Siphonaptera as sister group to Boreidae.     

Molecular phylogenetics of squirrelfishes and soldierfishes (Teleostei: Beryciformes: Holocentridae): Reconciling more than 100 years of taxonomic confusion

Squirrelfishes and soldierfishes (Holocentridae) are among the most conspicuous species in the nocturnal reef fish community. However, there is no clear consensus regarding their evolutionary relationships, which is reflected in a complicated taxonomic history. We collected DNA sequence data from multiple single copy nuclear genes and one mitochondrial gene sampled from over fifty percent of the recognized holocentrid species and infer the first species-level phylogeny of the Holocentridae. Our results strongly support the monophyly of the clades Myripristinae (soldierfishes) and Holocentrinae (squirrelfishes). The molecular phylogenies differ with regard to previous hypotheses of relationships within the Myriprisitinae, resolving a clade of cryptic reef associated and deep water non-reef dwelling lineages (Corniger+Plectrypops+Ostichthys) that is the sister lineage to a monophyletic Myripristis. Within Holocentrinae, Neoniphon and Sargocentron are strongly supported as paraphyletic, while Holocentrus is nested within Sargocentron. Using Bayesian ancestral state reconstruction methods, we demonstrate the taxonomically diagnostic characters for Neoniphon and Sargocentron likely represent character states with a complex evolutionary history that is not reflective of shared common ancestry. We propose a new classification for Holocentrinae, recognizing four lineages that are treated as genera: SargocentronFowler, 1904, HolocentrusScopoli, 1777, FlameoJordan and Evermann, 1898, and NeoniphonCastelnau, 1875.     

粒毛盘菌属及其相关属的分子系统学研究*

晶杯菌科的分类目前主要基于子囊盘外囊盘被表面毛状物的形态学特征,在系统演化关系上十分不清楚。本研究利用18SrRNA基因核苷酸序列分析方法探讨该科粒毛盘菌属及其相关属间的系统发育关系。以Saccharomycescerevisiae为外群的严格合意树和最简约树表明,粒毛盘菌属与其相关的属形成三个分支。Lachnumhyalopus,L.nudipes和L.virgineum代表一个分支。L.brasiliense,L.sclerotii,L.singerianum,Albotrichaguangxiensis,Calycellinapopulina.,Cistellagrevillei,Hyaloscyphaaureliella,Lachnellulacalyciformis,Parachnopezizaguangxiensis和Trichopezizasulphurea聚在一起(支持率为57%),为另一个分支。上述两个姊妹分支的支持强度为76%。与Lachnum在形态上有些相似的Cistella和Lachnum聚在一起的支持强度为51%。传统上纳入Arachnopezizoideae的Parachnopeziza与该亚科的模式属Arachnopeziza的关系较远。Arachnopezizaaurata是供试的14个种中距离最远的一个,位于系统发育树的最外侧,与上述两个分支的亲缘关系较远,这对Arachnopezizoideae在晶杯菌科中的地位提出了质疑。     

Comparative biology and the importance of cladistic classification: a case study from the sensory biology of squamate reptiles

Evolutionary taxonomy has all but succumbed to cladistic methodology, but it continues to exert considerable influence in the realm of higher classification. Some systematists accept cladistic methods in phylogeny inference, but allow paraphyly in formal classifications. Most important, however, many traditional classifications based on paraphyletic groups (e.g. 'Reptilia') remain in force, deeply entrenched in the literature. Cladists have argued that such paraphyletic classifications can mislead comparative biologists into false evolutionary generalizations, but this assertion has rarely, if ever, been supported by example. This paper provides a case study, illustrating in detail the influence of a traditional paraphyletic classification of squamate reptiles on the historical development of ideas regarding the evolution of sensory modes (chemoreception vs. vision) in the group. The paraphyletic classification is shown to have led to false generalizations and incorrect conclusions stemming directly from the fact that the classification did not reflect accurately the phylogeny of Squamata, particularly the cladistic relationships of Gekkota. This study provides direct evidence that evolutionary generalization must be rooted in the branching pattern of phylogeny and not the potentially arbitrary categorical ranks of traditional taxonomies. It further supports recent calls for a truly phylogenctic taxonomy that has as its philosophical core the concept of descent.     

A molecular phylogenetic study of Cucujidae s.l. (Coleoptera: Cucujoidea)

Of all the superfamilies within the megadiverse order Coleoptera (Insecta), Cucujoidea (Cucujiformia) is arguably the most problematic taxonomically. The families comprising Cucujidae s.l. (Silvanidae, Laemophloeidae, Passandridae and Cucujidae s.s. represent a large portion of cucujoid diversity. Herein we present the results of a rigorous molecular phylogenetic analysis of Cucujidae s.l. using maximum‐likelihood and Bayesian analyses of seven genes. Representatives of over half of the families of Cucujoidea (excluding the cerylonid series), as well as a broad sampling of Silvanidae and Laemophloeidae, were analysed. The monophyly of Cucujidae s.l. is rejected but a subgrouping of taxa that may form the core of a natural cucujoid lineage is recovered. This clade consists of two large monophyletic groups including several families each. Relationships among these smaller cucujoid groups are discussed, including several novel phylogenetic hypotheses, whereas morphological characters considered significant for classification in Cucujidae s.l. are evaluated in light of these phylogenetic hypotheses. Silvaninae, Telephanini, Brontini and Brontinae are recovered as monophyletic in the Bayesian analysis, but the former two are recovered as paraphyletic in the maximum‐likelihood analysis. Our results support the placement of Psammoecus Latreille within Telephanini and also recover a paraphyletic Telephanus Erichson. Silvaninae is divided into three lineages, each representing a potential tribal lineage. Laemophloeidae is rendered paraphyletic in all analyses by Propalticidae and the latter is herein formally transferred to Laemophloeidae stat.n . Several suprageneric laemophloeid clades are recovered and discussed as potential higher‐level groups. Laemophloeus Dejean is not recovered as monophyletic.     

TRIBAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE ASTERACEAE

Abstract— A cladistic analysis involving 27 tribes and subtribes of Asteraceae and 81 characters is presented. The terminal taxa are mainly those of present tribal classification, though some apparently poly- and paraphyletic tribes, notably the Mutisieae and the Inuleae, have been represented by sub-tribal taxa. Characters are assembled from all available sources. Corolla types, styles and stamens have provided many characters. The Lobeliaceae are used as an outgroup and are considered as the most probable sister group of the Asteraceae. There is a basal dichotomy in the family, the Mutisieae-Barnadesiinae being the monophyletic sister group of the remaining major, also monophyletic part of the family. The recent family division into two subfamilies about equal in size, the Cichorioideae and the Asteroideae, neither represents a basal dichotomy nor a sister group relationship within the Asteraceae. The Asteroideae are monophyletic and have their sister group within the paraphyletic Cichorioideae. Interrelationships among the cichorioid tribes are still unclear. The Lactuceae, Eremothamneae, Vernonieae and Liabeae may be one monophyletic group, and the Arctoteae, Carlineae, Echinopsideae and Cardueae another. The Mutisieae are a paraphyletic grade at the base of the family. Within the subfamily Asteroideae tribal interrelationships are also rather unclear. The Anthemideae and the Heliantheae sensu lato (including the Helenieae, Tageteae, Coreopsideae and all helenioid/helianthoid representatives sometimes placed in the Senecioneae) may be sister groups. The Heliantheae appear to be monophyletic and there is little support for the hypothesis that other tribes are derived from or have their sister group within the Heliantheae. The Astereae and the Eupatorieae may be sister groups, though a closer relationship between the Eupatorieae and the Heliantheae is possible. The Inuleae are a paraphyletic grade group at the base of the subfamily Asteroideae in the same way as the Mutiseae are a grade group at the base of the family.     

Molecular systematics of Tanaidacea (Crustacea: Peracarida) based on 18S sequence data, with an amendment of suborder/superfamily-level classification

Phylogenetic relationships within Tanaidacea were analyzed based on sequence data for the 18S rRNA gene. Our results strongly supported a monophyletic group composed of Neotanaidae, Tanaoidea, and Paratanaoidea, with the first two taxa forming a clade. These results contradict three previously suggested hypotheses of relationships. Based on the molecular results, and considering morphological similarities/differences between Neotanaidomorpha and Tanaidomorpha, we demoted Suborder Neotanaidomorpha to Superfamily Neotanaoidea within Tanaidomorpha; with this change, the classification of extant tanaidaceans becomes a two-suborder, four-superfamily system. This revision required revision of the diagnoses for Tanaidomorpha and its three super-families. The results for Apseudomorpha were ambiguous: this taxon was monophyletic in the maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses, but paraphyletic in the maximum parsimony and minimum evolution analyses.     

Re: Phylogenetic relationships in Sphingidae (Insecta: Lepidoptera): initial evidence from two nuclear genes

Partial DNA sequences from two mitochondrial (mt) and one nuclear gene (cytochrome b, 12S rRNA, and C-mos) were used to estimate the phylogenetic relationships among the six extant species of skinks endemic to the Cape Verde Archipelago. The species form a monophyletic unit, indicating a single colonization of the islands, probably from West Africa. Mabuya vaillanti and M. delalandii are sister taxa, as indicated by morphological characters. Mabuya fogoensis and M. stangeri are closely related, but the former is probably paraphyletic. Mabuya spinalis and M. salensis are also probably paraphyletic. Within species, samples from separate islands always form monophyletic groups. Some colonization events can be hypothesized, which are in line with the age of the islands. C-mos variation is concordant with the topology derived from mtDNA.