基于CiteSpace生物化学实验教学动态与热点可视化分析

生物化学是生物学和医学学科非常重要的基础课程,是进入21世纪以来发展最为迅速和最具活力的学科之一.生物化学理论教学极具抽象性,所以其实验教学是理解相关理论与掌握实际技能的重要环节.在生物化学实验教学过程中,及时掌握新的教学理念,新的教学方法,新的教学热点,紧跟教学发展趋势一直是教师们关注的重点问题.本文以中国学术期刊网...     

Evolution and current status of the phytochemistry of nitrogenous compounds

Nitrogen-containing and other secondary plant products have evolved as a consequence of the struggle between the plant and the animal kingdoms, the latter directly or indirectly thriving on plants. During evolution plants developed bioactive and exceedingly complicated chemical structures that serve the purpose of plant defense. It is this property of those plants that has been exploited by mankind as medicines, poisons and recreational drugs. Three classes of nitrogen-containing plant products are being reviewed in this article: the alkaloids, the cyanogenic glucosides/glucosinolates and the nonprotein amino acids. It is the interplay of different scientific disciplines such as chemistry, pharmacognosy, medicine, analytics, cell biology, molecular biology, botany and chemotaxonomy that form a new and exciting area called "phytochemistry". It is foreseeable that this integration of disciplines across traditional borders will bring new achievements in phytochemistry, as history has taught us already.     

Systematics on the threshold of the XXI century. Traditional principles and fundamentals from today's point of view

Systematics as regarded is a purely theoretical domain of biology, and its product, system, as a specific biological theory, or a topologo-genetic model of the biota. Linnaeus was the first to introduce the idea of system and the systematic approach into the natural history. The advent of evolutionism brought new meaning to the old term "affinity", so Linnaeus' slogan of natural system got new life, and Linnaeus taxonomy assimilated the evolutionary ideology quite naturally and much easier than many other departments of biology. The difference between natural and artificial systems is remaining, and it is in their goals, as formulated by Linnaeus: heuristic of the former and cataloguing of the latter. Linnaeus' clairvoyance discovered the existence of an infrageneric level of genetic integration provable by naturalists' experience. He chose for it the designation of "species" and laid it down as primary, basic unit of his system. This is plainly evident from his own writings; the story about Linnaean species being products of a logical division of genera is a pure fiction. Modern populational model of species, by 3 important criteria, appears to be more akin to the Linneaean one than to the ideas of Lamarckism and early Darwinism. Systematic approach focuses rather on the interrelations among elements and their relative position, then on the properties and qualities of separately treated individual elements. In the development of systematics the aspect of "nexification" (study of connections) has been continuously gaining attention especially regarding the nomenclature where connotation has been totally forced out by denotation.     

The randomness of life: A philosophical approach inspired by the Enlightenment

Did the Enlightenment anticipate modern reflections about the role of chance within cells or in living beings? No, especially if one pays attention to the very different scientific context of that periods and takes care to distrust the concept of "precursors". Nonetheless, several thinkers of the Enlightenment, scientists or philosophers, have constructed an opposition between the random and order that shares some links with modern concerns. More precisely, philosophers like Diderot and some physicians, chemists or naturalists, have articulated the necessity and contingency in opposition to the idea of an absolute natural order and to any preformed "germ" explaining the development of animals. But I will argue that this subtle concept also diverges from the idea of a universal determinism developed by Laplace. There is a way to deal with natural necessity and the universal interdependence of phenomena without excluding the random, going beyond the classical - though posterior to the eighteenth century - opposition between determinism and indeterminism. Particularly with Diderot, the Enlightenment presents an epistemology of the random loosely attached to the natural sciences, producing a philosophical reflection that can be linked with some modern issues of biology. I examine two examples: the criticism of the explanation of order by order, and the thesis that probability can tell us something about natural productions through the idea of randomized "expression," e.g., stochastic expression of genes for modern molecular biology and expressions of natural forms for Diderot.     

“藏茵陈”的基原植物和药用亲缘学

详细比较藏药"藏茵陈"基原植物川西獐牙菜及其混淆品(代用品)抱茎獐牙菜、紫红獐牙菜、四数獐牙菜、红直獐牙菜、大籽獐牙菜、狭叶獐牙菜和椭圆叶花锚的外部形态特征及化学成分,澄清了这一类群在分类上的混乱,发现川西獐牙菜与紫红獐牙菜在习性,花部特征,种子形态和化学成分组成等方面相似性最高,印证了核基因ITS序列的结果。同时分析"藏茵陈"混淆的原因是多种来源和形态相似性造成的,讨论了"藏茵陈"鉴定的方法。通过对獐牙菜属系统关系的分析,提出紫红獐牙菜作为川西獐牙菜替代品的理论依据。     

The Ambiguity of the Word "Complexity" a Proposal for Clarification

There are two different ways of defining complexity.1) Traditionally, the word "complexity" is considered synonymous to "organization". The transformation of species is an expression of victory against random indifferencism.2) The means of measuring complexity that was conceived by Kolmogorov has the advantage of having an external reference. Therefore, its logical reliability is considerable. But Kolmogorov's complexity will be at its best in cases of pure randomness.These mutually incompatible definitions explicitly demand a classification system.The first definition of complexity is contrary to the second one. This must be explained more precisely in order not to disturb the logic of Kolmogorov's conception and to enable to add to this conception, as closely as possible, along the logical rules derived from Gödel's incompleteness.The author proposes a beginning of complexity typology, founded on the necessity of laws that rule a random substract aiming at organization. The generality of laws to be selected will have a direct effect on the logical strength of the "biologists' definition" of complexity.Two fundamental laws are expressed, one derived from mathematics and the other from physics, two fields alien to biology. This fact improves the logical accordance to the argument.     

Revolutions in the earth sciences

The 20th century has been a century of scientific revolutions for many disciplines: quantum mechanics in physics, the atomic approach in chemistry, the nonlinear revolution in mathematics, the introduction of statistical physics. The major breakthroughs in these disciplines had all occurred by about 1930. In contrast, the revolutions in the so-called natural sciences, that is in the earth sciences and in biology, waited until the last half of the century. These revolutions were indeed late, but they were no less deep and drastic, and they occurred quite suddenly. Actually, one can say that not one but three revolutions occurred in the earth sciences: in plate tectonics, planetology and the environment. They occurred essentially independently from each other, but as time passed, their effects developed, amplified and started interacting. These effects continue strongly to this day.     

Clinical ethics and nursing: "yes" to caring, but "no" to a female ethics of care

According to a contemporary school of thought there is a specific female approach to ethics which is based not on abstract "male" ethical principles or rules, but on "care". Nurses have taken a keen interest in these female approaches to ethics. Drawing on the views expounded by Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, nurses claim that a female "ethics of care" better captures their moral experiences than a traditional male "ethics of justice". This paper argues that "care" is best understood in a dispositional sense, that is, as sensitivity and responsiveness to the particularities of a situation and the needs of "concrete" others. While "care", in this sense, is necessary for ethics, it is not sufficient. Ethics needs "justice" as well as "care". If women and nurses excessively devalue principles and norms, they will be left without the theoretical tools to condemn some actions or practices, and to defend others. They will, like generations of nurses before them, be condemned to silence.     

CLINICAL ETHICS AND NURSING: "YES" TO CARING, BUT "NO" TO A FEMALE ETHICS OF CARE

According to a contemporary school of thought there is a specific female approach to ethics which is based not on abstract "male" ethical principles or rules, but on "care". Nurses have taken a keen interest in these female approaches to ethics. Drawing on the views expounded by Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, nurses claim that a female "ethics of care" better captures their moral experiences than a traditional male "ethics of justice". This paper argues that "care" is best understood in a dispositional sense, that is, as sensitivity and responsiveness to the particularities of a situation and the needs of "concrete" others. While "care", in this sense, is necessary for ethics, it is not sufficient. Ethics needs "justice" as well as "care". If women and nurses excessively devalue principles and norms, they will be left without the theoretical tools to condemn some actions or practices, and to defend others. They will, like generations of nurses before them, be condemned to silence.     

Reviving the superorganism

Individuals become functionally organized to survive and reproduce in their environments by the process of natural selection. The question of whether larger units such as groups and communities can possess similar properties of functional organization, and therefore be regarded as "superorganisms", has a long history in biological thought. Modern evolutionary biology has rejected the concept of superorganisms, explaining virtually all adaptations at the individual or gene level. We criticize the modern literature on three counts. First, individual selection in its strong form is founded on a logical contradiction, in which genes-in-individuals are treated differently than individuals-in-groups or species-in-communities. Imposing consistency clearly shows that groups and communities can be organisms in the same sense that individuals are. Furthermore, superorganisms are more than just a theoretical possibility and actually exist in nature. Second, the view that genes are the "ultimate" unit of selection is irrelevant to the question of functional organization. Third, modern evolutionary biology includes numerous conceptual frameworks for analyzing evolution in structured populations. These frameworks should be regarded as different ways of analyzing a common process which, to be correct, must converge on the same conclusions. Unfortunately, evolutionists frequently regard them as competing theories that invoke different mechanisms, such that if one is "right" the others must be "wrong". The problem of multiple frameworks is aggravated by the fact that major terms, such as "units of selection", are defined differently within each framework, yet many evolutionists who use one framework to argue against another assume shared meanings. We suggest that focusing on the concept of organism will help dispell this fog of semantic confusion, allowing all frameworks to converge on the same conclusions regarding units of functional organization.     

用《组合中药学》的理论开发新型中药

我们以现代科技理论为出发点,提出了<组合中药学>新理论体系,试图使中外学者对中药的认识趋于一致.中药的本质就是"组合".无论是单方或复方都是一个庞大的分子库.具有相同或相似功能的分子组合成一个群体.这些群体表现出特定的药效."组合"有三层意思生药的组合、活性分子群的组合与特定疗效的组合.分子群是特定药效功能的物质基础.<组合中药学>就是从<组合分子>水平上研究中药及其药效的物质基础,阐明中药活性部位的相互作用与药效的相互关系及其作用机制.<组合中药学>的三个新概念中药功效分子族具有相似药效作用的一类分子的组合,其骨架及功能团相同或相似.单味中药表征性组合分子单味中药药效的代表性功效分子族,即主要药效分子组合.单味中药非表性组合分子单味中药表征性分子以外的其它功效分子族,即辅助药效分子的组合.<组合中药学>的主要研究范围中药药效的组合分子学基础(植物化学,天然产物);组合分子的药理学基础(分子生物学,细胞生物学,药理学).本文提出了应用<组合中药学>研究新型中药的新方法.     

系统生物学对医学的影响

系统生物学是21世纪最前沿的科学之一,它是随着生命科学飞速发展而产生的一门新兴生物学分支[1],它综合数学、信息科学和生物学的各种工具来阐明和理解大量的数据所包含的生物医学意义,从而使人们能够从整体上理解生物医学系统并精确、量化地预测生物医学系统的行为。随着系统生物学的发展及其理论的突破,将在疾病诊治、新药开发、预防医学方面发挥重要的作用,有助于弥补传统医学缺陷并促进其发展。     

An analysis of the meaning of the concepts of "commitment" and "determination" in the study of patterns of development

The use of the term "commitment" by different authors was compared and the term itself was compared with the term "determination". Different authors understand the term "commitment" in different ways. It is proposed to preserve the terms "competence", "determination" (labile and stable) and "differentiation" in studies of normal development at stages preceding the appearance of organ rudiments in order to facilitate the use of the knowledge acquired by experimental embryology and to decipher these concepts at the molecular level. The meaning of the term "commitment" should be made more precise when describing the experimental results and also when assessing the results obtained by various authors and published in numerous papers and reviews.     

Hans Driesch and the problems of "normal psychology". Rereading his Crisis in Psychology (1925)

In 1925, the German biologist and philosopher Hans Driesch published a booklet entitled The Crisis in Psychology. It was originally published in English and was based on lectures given at various universities in China, Japan and the USA. The "crisis" in psychology of that time, in Driesch's opinion, lies in the necessity to decide about "the road which psychology is to follow in the future". This necessity refers to five "critical points", namely (1) to develop the theory of psychic elements to a theory of meaning by phenomenological analysis, (2) the overcoming of association theory, (3) to acknowledge that the unconscious is a fact and a "normal" aspect of mental life, (4) to reject "psychomechanical parallelism" or any other epiphenomenalistic solution of the mind-body problem, and (5) the extension of psychical research to new facts as described by parapsychology, for instance. Driesch saw close parallels between the development of modern psychology and that of biology, namely in a theoretical shift from "sum-concepts" like association and mechanics, to "totality-concepts" like soul and entelechy. The German translation of 1926 was entitled Grundprobleme der Psychologie (Fundamental Problems of Psychology) while "the crisis in psychology" forms just the subtitle of this book. This underlines that Driesch's argumentation--in contrast to that of Buehler--dealt with ontological questions rather than with paradigms.     

What will result from the interaction between functional and evolutionary biology?

The modern synthesis has been considered to be wrongly called a "synthesis", since it had completely excluded embryology, and many other disciplines. The recent developments of Evo-Devo have been seen as a step in the right direction, as complementing the modern synthesis, and probably leading to a "new synthesis". My argument is that the absence of embryology from the modern synthesis was the visible sign of a more profound lack: the absence of functional biology in the evolutionary synthesis. I will consider the reasons for this absence, as well as the recent transformations which favoured a closer interaction between these two branches of biology. Then I will describe two examples of recent work in which functional and evolutionary questioning were tightly linked. The most significant part of the paper will be devoted to the transformation of evolutionary theory that can be expected from this encounter: a deep transformation, or simply an experimental confirmation of this theory? I will not choose between these two different possibilities, but will discuss some of the difficulties which make the choice problematic.     

The cell theory--history, present state and prospects (on the 150th anniversary of the development of the cell theory)

The main stages of history of this most important biological conception are presented and the state of the modern cell theory and its future prospects are considered. Since 1839, when T. Schwann expounded his conception of the cell, a long pathway in cognition of the cell function and organization has been covered. From the original picture of the complex organism as a "cellular state", made up of relatively independent "elementary organisms", i.e. cells the modern biology has come to the idea of the cell as an integral system either being a part of a complex organism, or living free in the nature (protists). The cell represents certain qualitatively peculiar level in a complex evolutionary established hierarchy of biological systems. Some particular tight relations, existing between cytology, as a fundamental biological science and molecular biology, genetics, ecology and other biological disciplines are considered. The importance of the cell conception is ascertained for practical aims, especially in medicine.     

Optimierung und ökonomisierung im kontext von evolutionstheorie und phylogenetischer rekonstruktion

The meaning of optimality and economy in phylogenetics and evolutionary biology is discussed. It can be shown that the prevailing concepts of optimality and economy are equivocal as they are not based on strict theoretical positions and as they have a variable meaning in different theoretical contexts. The ideas of optimality and economy can be considered to be identical with the expectation of a relatively simple order in a particular field of study. Although there exists no way of inferring one or several methods of solving scientific problems from the presupposed idea of economy and optimality, a lack of motivation for scientific investigations would result if the concepts of economy and optimality in nature were dropped. By reference to several examples, it is shown that the concepts of optimality and economy are only useful against the background of indispensable theories. If there is a shift from one theory to another, a restriction on the use of these concepts is necessary. Optimality and economy in the sense of operations research in engineering or economical sciences depend on the principle of minimum costs. Both theoretical concepts: technical efficiency in relation to the energy required to run a machine and profit maximation in an economical framework must be shown to be realistic assumptions. In the field of biology processes of optimization and economization are normally discussed under two different views:

1. The concept of economy is used in cases of functional adaptation when the organism makes good use of the building material which is available to fulfill one (or more) functions. The theoretical background must be seen in the energy-consuming aspect of the organism.
2. In evolutionary change and phylogeny ‘economization’ and ‘optimization’ are deduced from the evolutionary theory, and evolution is shown to produce a special kind of biological economy in biological systems (Bock & von Wahlert, 1965). The ‘Okonomie-Prinzip’ or ‘Lesrichtungskriterium’ points out the arguments needed to state a phylogenetic theory and to construct a dendrogram (Peters & Gutmann, 1971).

In every phylogenetic theory concerning the adaptational change in the evolving biological system an explanation for the function of all stages is required. Only those statements should be accepted as phylogenetic theories which are characterized by the demonstration of the process of economization in the functional relations of the evolving organism. The process of adaptation can be determined by the improved chance of some mutants to propagate their genetical information. In this process all functional systems in their interrelations — i.a. mutual dependence — and their relation with the environment add their functional efficiency to the information to be delivered to their progeny, because the more economical biological system in a certain environment will have a better chance to produce offspring. This outcome is affirmed by natural selection which works on all levels of the evolving biological systems (Gutmann & Peters 1973). Nevertheless a judgment about adaptation cannot be taken as a scale of measurement in the phylogenetic process. The conditions in the organism itself and in the environment or in the organic system alone can change in so profound a manner that the marginal conditions of the earlier stages of the process of adaptation are not the same as in the derived ones. During phylogenetic change of the evolving organism the selective strains are also continuously changing. As a consequence no state or invariant concept of economy can cover the different stages of the phylogenetic process. The pragmatical meaning of the theoretical consideration is substantiated by the example of the hydrostatic skeleton theory in which the chordates are derived from metameric worms with a fluid skeleton. Herrn Professor Dr. P. Dullemeijer sind die Verfasser für kritische Lektüre und wertovolle Hinweise zu Dank verpflichtet.     

结构生物学研究在中国

1970年代初期,中国科学工作者测定了亚洲地区第一个蛋白质晶体结构——猪胰岛素三方二锌晶体结构,成为中国结构生物学历史发展的起点.进入新世纪,该学科领域已进入国际前沿,展现出快速发展态势,正在迎来发展新时期.本篇评述包含"历史发展","现代化实验设施建设"和"深入生命世界,走进国际前沿——近年代表性研究成果集萃"三个主题节段,以较全视野反映结构生物学研究在中国的发展历程.     

SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF SENSORY EVALUATION AND ITS POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS TO THE VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF HOME ECONOMICS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Sensory evaluation is a scientific method that deals with precision, accuracy and sensitivity. Its basic principles are in large part anchored on the natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics. However, sensory evaluation goes beyond such platforms and has its own social, economic and cultural facets. Sensory evaluation has been extensively used in the study of consumer items such as food and clothing, and lately on behavioral and physiological reactions. It has been an integral part of the food science curriculum in various universities. However, the other disciplines of home economics, such as clothing technology, family life and child development, home economics education, hotel, restaurant and institution management, interior design and community nutrition, which deal with the needs of families and consumers, have not fully maximized the use of sensory evaluation. The multidisciplinary nature of home economics will push sensory evaluation to a more diverse level of relevance and purpose. This paper presented the social, economic and cultural dimensions of sensory evaluation along with its possible applications in the various disciplines of home economics in the Philippines.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The paper provided a wholistic view of sensory evaluation not merely as a scientific method but its important social, cultural and economic dimensions. This document can serve as a guide for students, teachers and professionals in the conduct of sensory assessments. Likewise, this will help home economists not only in the Philippines but also in other countries to maximize the use of sensory evaluation in improving the quality of life of families and consumers. Moreover, this can drive multidisciplinary undertakings utilizing sensory evaluation as the key concept and thus enrich the pool of knowledge both in the natural and social sciences and their interaction.