Subcutaneous fat tissue patterning in Polish populations

Subcutaneous fatfolds in 6440 subjects aged 3–90 (including 3427 males) from 5 populations in Poland inhabiting rural areas, showing different degrees of urbanization and industrialization, were measured at 10 sites of the body with the Parizkova method using the Harpenden caliper. The examination covered also 988 children, aged 1–36 months from Warsaw. On the basis of the measurement of 4 fat-folds examined in the following order: on the cheek, under the scapula, on the abdomen and the calf, 18 types of the distribution of the adipose tissue (patterning) were identified. These were described with the following coding: 1=scanty, 2=medium, 3=thick. The types showing the statistically relevant surpluses are: 1111, 1112, 1221, 1222, 1333, 2111, 2112, 2121, 2211, 2221, 2222, 2223, 2332, 2333, 3222, 3223, 3332, 3333. Type 1111 prevails in rural populations, but is also frequent in populations inhabiting strongly industrialized areas. In the rural populations inhabiting areas under the initial stage of industrialization type 2111 is predominant, while, the 3333 is typical of industrial towns and cities. The first factor defines fatness, the second factor defines the anatomical distribution of fat (patterning). These two factors explain 72–73 per cent of the total variation of 10 measured folds. The most significant results have been achieved in predicting the amount of fat on the basis of the afore-listed factors in old women, while the poorest predictability has been found in male infants. It has been established that when the cheek-fold is thick, the folds at other sites of the body are not scanty in most cases, while the scanty fold on the trunk and the calf indicates the absence of the thickness on the cheek. When the adipose tissue is medium under the scapula or on the abdomen, it is not thick, in the majority of subjects, on the abdomen or under the scapula. When the subscapular tissue or those on the abdomen and the calf are thick, no scanty folds are found at other sites of the trunk and the leg. The correlation between the thickness of the adipose tissue at different sites of the body is more conspicuous in men than in women. The best «predictor» of fatness in male infants is the measurement on the abdomen or on the 10th rib, while in male subjects aged 3–90, it is the subscapular fold, or the 10th rib or the thigh. In female infants the best predictor is the adipose tissue on the abdomen, on the cheek and under the scapula, while in subjects aged 3–90 it is the 10th rib, the abdomen and the suprailiac fold. The measurements of the adipose tissue on the cheek and under the scapula are the best fat patterning «predictors».     

Gender differences in depression

Depression is twice as common in women as in men, although some concern has been raised in terms of misdiagnosing depression in men. The incidence of depression in women varies during the life span. The peak incidence during childbearing years appears to be associated with cyclic hormonal changes. Women also present with reproductive -specific mood disorders: pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), depression in pregnancy, postpartal mood disorder (PDD) and perimenopausal depressive disorder. Gender differences were repeatedly observed in response to antidepressant medication. Premenopausal women appear to respond poorly and to show low tolerability to TCAs, but they tend to show greater responsiveness to the SSRIs. In contrast, men and postmenopausal women can respond equally to the TCAs and SSRIs. These differences are contributed to gender differences in pharmacokinetics of antidepressants and to the influence of menstrual cycle. These findings suggest the need for a gender-specific approach to the evaluation and management of depression.     

Gender differences in morningness-eveningness preference

Morningness-eveningness preference (morning-, intermediate-, evening-type) or circadian typology is the individual difference that most clearly explains the variations in the rhythmic expression of biological or behavioral patterns. The aim of this study was to analyze gender difference in morningness-eveningness preference using the Horne and Ostberg questionnaire in the largest university student population selected so far (N = 2135), with an age range 18-30 yr. Morningness-eveningness questionnaire (MEQ) score distribution closely correlated to the normal curve (range 17-78, mean = 48.25; SD = 10.11), with 338 (15.84%) morning-types, 1273 (59.62%) intermediate-types, and 524 (24.54%) evening-types. The men and women differed significantly in their mean scores (p < 0.0001) and distribution per circadian typology (p < 0.00001), with the men presenting a more pronounced eveningness preference. Three factors were identified by factor analysis: time of greatest efficiency (I), sleep time/sleep phase (II), awakening time/sleep inertia (III). The MEQ items sensitive to gender differences were essentially those included in factor I and factor II. The results are discussed in relation to recent models of circadian regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.     

Gender differences in Parkinson's disease

Because estrogen has numerous effects on dopamine neurotransmission, many researchers are interested in its possible use to either slow the progression or reduce the risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). The incidence of PD is greater in men than in women. Gender differences in neurotoxicity have been observed, and basic research in experimental animals indicates that estrogen protects neurons from various forms of injury. However, the results of retrospective surveys of the neuroprotective effects of estrogen replacement in PD have been mixed, with some showing no effect on risk and others showing a reduction in risk. A mildly significant gender difference in disability and quality-of-life reporting has been noted, with women citing greater disability and reduced quality of life. Gender differences have been shown in response to treatment of PD, for example, in how levodopa is metabolized-women have greater levodopa bioavailability. In the Parkinson's Disease on Estrogen Therapy Replacement in the Menopause Years (POETRY) study, participants were found to have improved scores on the Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale. Based on the POETRY results, it is hypothesized that estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) may lead to improvement in PD symptoms and provide an opportunity to reduce the dosage of antiparkinsonian medication in women.     

Gender differences in tumor necrosis factor alpha and leptin secretion from subcutaneous and visceral fat tissue

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) and leptin concentrations were determined in the abdominal subcutaneous and visceral (omental) adipose tissue of patients undergoing elective open-abdominal surgery and compared with their body mass index. The concentration of leptin did not differ significantly between women and men, being high in subcutaneous fat tissue and low in visceral fat tissue. TNFalpha concentration in subcutaneous fat tissue was approximately the same in both genders, but it was significantly lower in visceral fat tissue of women and unchanged in visceral fat tissue of men. A significant correlation between BMI and leptin was found in the two fat tissue compartments of both genders, but the correlation between BMI and TNFalpha was found only in subcutaneous fat tissue of women.     

Oral contraceptives and fat patterning in young adult women

90 nulliparous white female college students, selected from 2 undergraduate introductory courses at Kansas University, participated in a cross-sectional study designed to compare the fat distribution of oral contraceptive (OC) users to that of nonusers matched for height and weight. The subjects ranged in age from 18-26 years. The 30 OC users had been using the same brand of OCs for an average of 17.7 months (range of 3-36 months) and had not used another brand previously. Each OC user was matched to 2 nonusers. Each subject's height was measured to the nearest cm. A Detecto sliding-weight balance was used to measure body weights of the women (in light clothing) to the nearest 0.1 kg. Circumference measurements also were taken to determine body shape and fat distribution. The waist girth to hip ratio (WHR) also was calculated. Fat distribution of the OC users was similar to that of nonusers matched for height and weight. Both groups were comparable in their circumference and skinfold measurements, except that the OC users had larger axilla skinfolds. Progestational activity of the combined OCs was not associated with any of the physical measurements. Estrogenic activity of the combined OCs was correlated positively with body mass index, arm and thigh circumference, and peripheral fat distribution. Estrogenic activity also was associated weakly with hip and low chest circumferences but no with any of the 7 skinfold thickness measurements. The women taking the higher estrogen OCs were more likely to have circumference measurements consistent with a more gynoid shape. Thigh skinfold thickness was consistent with those findings, though not statistically significant.     

Gender differences in anaerobic power tests

The purpose of this study was to determine if the differences in anaerobic power between males and females could be accounted for by differences in body composition, strength, and neuromuscular function. A total of 82 untrained men and 99 women took part in the study. Body composition, somatotype, isometric strength, neuromuscular function were measured, and four anaerobic power tests performed. The men were significantly different from the women on all strength, power, and neuromuscular measurements except reaction time and on all anthropometric and somatotype dimensions except ectomorphy. Strength and anthropometric dimensions were similarly related to anaerobic power values within each sex. Relative fat (%fat) exerted different degrees of influence on sprint and jump performances in each sex. Removing the influence of anthropometric, strength, and neuromuscular differences by analysis of covariance reduced, but did not remove, the significant differences between the sexes. Therefore, factors other than lean body mass, leg strength, and neuromuscular function may be operating in short-term, explosive power performances to account for the differences between the sexes. The task-specific nature of anaerobic power tests and the relatively large influence of anthropometric factors on power production were confirmed.     

Gender differences in dementia risk factors

Background: With the aging of the population, dementia has become an important health concern in most countries. There is a growing body of literature on the importance of cardiovascular risk factors in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia, and mixed dementia (AD with cerebrovascular disease).Objective: This article reviews the role of major risk factors in dementia between both sexes.Methods: The MEDLINE, PubMed, and HealthSTAR databases were searched between 1966 and January 2007 for English-language articles on the risk factors for dementia.Results: The distribution and prevalence of major risk factors between the sexes and age groups are varied. Female sex has been associated with increased risk of the development of AD. In women aged >75 years, rates of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes are higher than in similarly aged men. Apolipoprotein E ε 4 genotype status appears to have a greater deleterious effect on gross hippocampal pathology and memory performance in women compared with men. Midlife hypertension and hypercholesterolemia in both sexes predict a higher risk of developing AD in later life. Diabetes is increasing in frequency to a greater extent in women than in men, and is associated with a substantial risk for cognitive impairment. Dementia in women (probably) and in men (possibly) is influenced by obesity in the middle of life.Conclusions: It remains critical that large prospective clinical trials be designed to assess the effect of optimum management of vascular risk factors on cognitive functioning and dementia as the primary outcome, and include women and men in numbers adequate for assessment of gender effects.     

Gender differences in psychotic bipolar mania

Objective: This study examined gender differences in the prevalence and types of psychotic symptoms in bipolar mania.Methods: Participants were drawn from consecutive admissions to the psychiatric clinic in Chemnitz, Germany, in 2005. The diagnosis of bipolar disorder, manic episode was made within 24 hours of admission, and the severity of mania was assessed using the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) and the German version of the Altman Self-Rating Mania Scale. Data collected for each patient included age at the onset of bipolar illness, number of previous episodes, social functioning between episodes, and duration of hospitalization for the index episode. Based on the Task Force for Methods and Documentation in Psychiatry system, psychotic symptoms were classified as hallucinations (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, acousma, somatic); delusions (paranoid, reference, guilt, grandeur, religious, erotomania, hypochondriac, poverty, jealousy); and ego disorder (thought control, thought broadcasting).Results: One hundred thirty-seven women and 109 men met the criteria for an acute manic episode, of whom 93 women and 62 men had psychotic symptoms. Compared with psychotic men, psychotic women had more delusions and hallucinations, both overall and per patient, and more delusions of reference and paranoid delusions. Psychotic women had more mixed states compared with psychotic men. Psychotic women differed from both psychotic men and nonpsychotic women on a number of clinical and social variables: they had higher YMRS scores and more previous episodes of depression despite an earlier onset of illness.Conclusion: Women with bipolar mania exhibited a specific pattern of psychotic symptoms that appeared to be associated with greater severity of the acute episode, more mixed states, and a more severe course of illness.     

Gender differences in coronary heart disease

Cardiovascular disease develops 7 to 10 years later in women than in men and is still the major cause of death in women. The risk of heart disease in women is often underestimated due to the misperception that females are ‘protected’ against cardiovascular disease. The under-recognition of heart disease and differences in clinical presentation in women lead to less aggressive treatment strategies and a lower representation of women in clinical trials. Furthermore, self-awareness in women and identification of their cardiovascular risk factors needs more attention, which should result in a better prevention of cardiovascular events. In this review we summarise the major issues that are important in the diagnosis and treatment of coronary heart disease in women. (Neth Heart J 2010;18:598–603.)     

Longitudinal analysis of adolescent growth in height,fatness, and fat patterning in rural South African black children

Adolescent growth in height, fatness, and fat patterning was investigated in a sample of 79 rural South African black children studied longitudinally from 6–18 years. Data were analyzed relative to peak height velocity (PHV) to identify the phenomenon of “compensatory” growth in height during adolescence and to describe changes in fatness and fat patterning. Compensatory growth following PHV was clearly observed relative to NHANES data for African-Americans in that Z-scores for height at the start of the adolescent growth spurt were greater than those at the end of the spurt. Statistically significant differences in fatness and centralization between males and females did not occur until about 2 years after PHV was attained. Centralization of fat occurred in both sexes but moreso in males. The lack of centralization in females was due to relatively greater triceps skinfold velocities. The rapid gain in post-PHV fatness in females may represent a physiological adaptation to an energetically sub-optimal environment, buffering the energetic costs of reproduction. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Gender differences in the expression of genes involved during cardiac development in offspring from dams on high fat diet

Previously we have demonstrated that maternal high fat diet (HF) during pregnancy increase cardiovascular risk in the offspring, and pharmacological intervention using statins in late pregnancy reduced these risk factors. However the effects of maternal HF-feeding and statin treatment during pregnancy on development of heart remain unknown. Hence we measured expression of genes involved in cell cycle progression (cyclin G1), ventricular remodelling brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), and environmental stress response small proline-rich protein 1A (SPRR 1A) in the offspring left ventricle (LV) from dams on HF with or without statin treatment. Female C57 mice were fed a HF diet (45 % kcal fat) 4 weeks prior to conception, during pregnancy and lactation. From the second half of the pregnancy and throughout lactation, half of the pregnant females on HF diet were given a water-soluble statin (Pravastatin) in their drinking water (HF + S). At weaning offspring were fed HF diet to adulthood (generating dam/offspring dietary groups HF/HF and HF + S/HF). These groups were compared with offspring from dams fed standard chow (C 21 % kcal fat) and fed C diet from weaning (C/C). LV mRNA levels for cyclin G1, BNP and SPRR 1A were measured by RT-PCR. Heart weights and BP in HF/HF offspring were higher versus C/C group. Maternal Pravastatin treatment reduced BP and heart weights in HF + S/HF female offspring to levels found in C/C group. LV cyclin G1 mRNA levels were lower in HF/HF versus both C/C and HF + S/HF offspring. BNP mRNA levels were elevated in HF/HF females but lower in males versus C/C. BNP gene expression in HF + S/HF offspring was similar to HF/HF. SPRR 1A mRNA levels were similar in all treatment groups. Statins given to HF-fed pregnant dams reduced cardiovascular risk in adult offspring, and this is accompanied by changes in expression of genes involved in adaptive remodelling in the offspring LV and that there is a gender difference.     

Racial differences in subcutaneous fat patterns in children aged 7–15 years

In a stratified random sample of 278 children aged 7–15 years of an entire biracial community, skinfold measurements were taken on six standard body sites. We found that white children had generally thicker skinfolds than blacks for the same body weight, with a consistent exception: the subscapular skinfold was relatively thicker in blacks. It is suggested that this racial difference in distribution of fat may manifest a genetic adaptive trait developed under circumstances demanding both a caloric reserve and facilitation of convective heat loss in tropical climates.