Division of Labor Regulates Precision Rescue Behavior in Sand-Dwelling Cataglyphis cursor Ants: To Give Is to Receive

Division of labor, an adaptation in which individuals specialize in performing tasks necessary to the colony, such as nest defense and foraging, is believed key to eusocial insects'' remarkable ecological success. Here we report, for the first time, a completely novel specialization in a eusocial insect, namely the ability of Cataglyphis cursor ants to rescue a trapped nestmate using precisely targeted behavior. Labeled “precision rescue”, this behavior involves the ability of rescuers not only to detect what, exactly, holds the victim in place, but also to direct specific actions to this obstacle. Individual ants, sampled from each of C. cursor''s three castes, namely foragers, nurses and inactives, were experimentally ensnared (the “victim”) and exposed to a caste-specific group of potential “rescuers.” The data reveal that foragers were able to administer, and obtain, the most help while members of the youngest, inactive caste not only failed to respond to victims, but also received virtually no help from potential rescuers, regardless of caste. Nurses performed intermediate levels of aid, mirroring their intermediate caste status. Our results demonstrate that division of labor, which controls foraging, defense and brood care in C. cursor, also regulates a newly discovered behavior in this species, namely a sophisticated form of rescue, a highly adaptive specialization that is finely tuned to a caste member''s probability of becoming, or encountering, a victim in need of rescue.     

Worker thermal tolerance in the thermophilic ant Cataglyphis cursor (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)

In the thermophilic ant genus Cataglyphis, species differing in their physical caste system have developed alternative mechanisms to face extreme heat by physiological and/or behavioural adaptations. In this study, we tested whether thermal tolerance is related to worker size in the ant Cataglyphis cursor that presents intermediate worker size compared with previously studied species (size range 3.5–10 mm). Thermal tolerance at two temperatures was tested in the laboratory on colonies originating from two habitats (seaside versus vineyard), known to differ in average worker size. As expected large workers were more resistant to high temperature than small workers, but the effect of worker size on thermal resistance was less pronounced under the more extreme temperatures. The pattern of thermal tolerance was similar in the two habitat types. After controlling for worker size, worker thermal tolerance significantly varied amongst colonies, but this variation was not related to colony size. Our results suggest that a higher thermal tolerance can confer an advantage to larger workers especially during foraging and are discussed in the context of the evolution of worker size in ants.     

Directed Aerial Descent Behavior in African Canopy Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Several species of neotropical ants direct their aerial descent toward tree trunks during a fall from the forest canopy. The primary goal of this study was to determine if afrotropical arboreal ants exhibit similar gliding behavior. Ants were collected from nine tree crowns in late secondary forest at a hydrocarbon extraction site near Gamba, Gabon. Of the 32 species tested, the behavior was observed in five Cataulacus spp. and three Camponotus spp., making this the first report of gliding in African ants. Aerial glide performance (horizontal distance traveled per unit vertical drop distance) decreased with increasing body size among species and among individuals of Cataulacus erinaceus. Characteristics of directed descent behavior in C. erinaceous were very similar to those of the neotropical ant Cephalotes atratus.     

Behavioural Variability and Development of Cataglyphis cursor Ant Workers (Hymenoptera,Formicidae)1)

Variability and development of behaviour among Cataglyphis cursor ant workers was analyzed, after identifying each member of the studied nests by individual marking. Behavioural differences between workers of the same nest were considerable, even when they were assigned to the same behavioural class defined with multifactorial analysis. Workers' behaviour also changed considerably over short-time intervals, for example from one day to another. Behavioural development was very variable. Only ? of the workers followed the classical age polyethism, while the remainder showed stable behaviour or irregular variations from the expected scheme.     

Social Organization of Cataglyphis cursor Ant Colonies (Hymenoptera,Formicidae): Inter-, and Intraspecific Comparisons

The social organization of several colonies of the ant Cataglyphis cursor with different compositions has been studied by means of individual marking of workers and later treatment of data with correspondence analysis. There are always three main poles or groups of tasks: inactivity, unspecific tasks in the nest and outside activities. From them, three groups of workers are separated: inactives, which stay immobile in the nest a great part of their time; interiors, which perform various tasks in the nest; and foragers, that are engaged in activities outside the nest. Several factors, such as the presence of the queen, the colony size or the season of the year influence the social structure of C. cursor colonies and originate important inter-, and intracolonial variations.     

Trophallaxis Mediates Uniformity of Colony Odor in Cataglyphis iberica Ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)

We studied the effect of nestmate separation on trophallaxis in the polydomous ant Cataglyphis iberica. After dividing three colonies into two equivalent subgroups, one queenright and one queenless, we quantified the frequency of trophallaxis within each subgroup, between the workers from the two subgroups (mixed trophallaxis), and trophallaxis involving the queen. Observations of trophallaxis were conducted over four periods of time: for 2 weeks before the separation of the two subgroups, 8 weeks during separation, immediately after reunification, and 3 weeks following reunification. Subgroups were identically fed on the eve of each day of observation. Group separation induced an increase in mixed frequencies of trophallaxis just after reunification, after which trophallaxis returned to the initial level observed before separation. Previous results showed that group separation in C. iberica induces hydrocarbon profile divergence and that reunification restores this chemical modification. The current results seem to indicate that increased trophallaxis permits a uniform odor to be reestablished among previously separated ants. Trophallaxis involving the queen is infrequent and does not seem to be crucial in the process of odor exchange. Our data confirm that trophallaxis plays a key role in establishing the Gestalt colony odor, particularly among naturally separated satellite nests in a polydomous species like C. iberica.     

First Evidence of Inclusive Sexual Selection in the Ant Cataglyphis cursor: Worker Aggressions Differentially Affect Male Access to Virgin Queens

Sexual selection typically shapes the traits of individuals capable of reproduction. However, in social species, it may also affect the behaviour of non‐reproductive individuals if this increases their inclusive fitness. We examined the potential role of workers during mating in the polyandrous ant Cataglyphis cursor. In this species, mating takes place on the ground near the nest entrance, and workers chase away foreign males trying to mate with young queens (gynes). We investigated the effects of worker aggression on male mating attempts by placing three or four males in the presence of one foreign gyne and 20 of her nestmate workers and contrasted this with a second group of 3–4 males in the presence of another gyne without nestmate workers (n = 8 paired replicates). Workers strongly attacked males (more than 20 aggressions per minute), although this did not affect the total number of mating attempts by the 3–4 males or the skew in the number of mating attempts among these males. However, there was an interaction between worker aggression and relative male weight, as relatively heavy males attempted to mate more often than lighter males in the absence of worker whereas the reverse occurred in the presence of workers. Our study is the first to experimentally test the potential role of non‐reproductive individuals in sexual selection. It shows that workers could potentially change male mating success by disfavouring heavier males.     

Ants Use Partner Specific Odors to Learn to Recognize a Mutualistic Partner

Regulation via interspecific communication is an important for the maintenance of many mutualisms. However, mechanisms underlying the evolution of partner communication are poorly understood for many mutualisms. Here we show, in an ant-lycaenid butterfly mutualism, that attendant ants selectively learn to recognize and interact cooperatively with a partner. Workers of the ant Pristomyrmex punctatus learn to associate cuticular hydrocarbons of mutualistic Narathura japonica caterpillars with food rewards and, as a result, are more likely to tend the caterpillars. However, the workers do not learn to associate the cuticular hydrocarbons of caterpillars of a non-ant-associated lycaenid, Lycaena phlaeas, with artificial food rewards. Chemical analysis revealed cuticular hydrocarbon profiles of the mutualistic caterpillars were complex compared with those of non-ant-associated caterpillars. Our results suggest that partner-recognition based on partner-specific chemical signals and cognitive abilities of workers are important mechanisms underlying the evolution and maintenance of mutualism with ants.     

Smells like home: Desert ants, Cataglyphis fortis, use olfactory landmarks to pinpoint the nest

Background

Although some mechanisms of habitat adaptation of conspecific populations have been recently elucidated, the evolution of female preference has rarely been addressed as a force driving habitat adaptation in natural settings. Habitat adaptation of fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra), as found in Middle Europe (Germany), can be framed in an explicit phylogeographic framework that allows for the evolution of habitat adaptation between distinct populations to be traced. Typically, females of S. salamandra only deposit their larvae in small permanent streams. However, some populations of the western post-glacial recolonization lineage use small temporary ponds as larval habitats. Pond larvae display several habitat-specific adaptations that are absent in stream-adapted larvae. We conducted mate preference tests with females from three distinct German populations in order to determine the influence of habitat adaptation versus neutral genetic distance on female mate choice. Two populations that we tested belong to the western post-glacial recolonization group, but are adapted to either stream or pond habitats. The third population is adapted to streams but represents the eastern recolonization lineage.

Results

Despite large genetic distances with F_ST values around 0.5, the stream-adapted females preferred males from the same habitat type regardless of genetic distance. Conversely, pond-adapted females did not prefer males from their own population when compared to stream-adapted individuals of either lineage.

Conclusion

A comparative analysis of our data showed that habitat adaptation rather than neutral genetic distance correlates with female preference in these salamanders, and that habitat-dependent female preference of a specific pond-reproducing population may have been lost during adaptation to the novel environmental conditions of ponds.     

重组水蛭素的突变及突变体部分性质研究

以基因突变结合动力学分析的方法研究了水蛭素空间结构及其与凝血酶的相互作用．采用基因定点突变和随机突变的方法得到两个重组水蛭素突变体,并从抗酰胺水解活性,抗凝血酶活力和稳定性三个方面,比较研究了重组水蛭素ｒＨＶ２中４７位和１１位两个氨基酸残基对其稳定性和抑制能力的影响．将ｒＨＶ２中Ｇｌｎ１１和Ａｓｎ４７分别突变为Ｈｉｓ１１和Ｌｙｓ４７后,ｒＨＶ２－Ｈ１１生物活力降低３０％,ｒＨＶ２－Ｋ４７生物活力提高６１％．测定抑制常数Ｋｉ表明,ｒＨＶ２－Ｈ１１突变体Ｋｉ值升高１４倍,ｒＨＶ２－Ｋ４７突变体Ｋｉ值降低１４倍,两个突变体的热稳定性均有所增强,ｒＨＶ２－Ｈ１１在酸性和碱性条件的稳定性降低．分析实验结果,可以认为：①４７位的Ｌｙｓ可能是通过氢键和静电两种作用力同时影响着水蛭素的三维结构和其与凝血酶的结合．②１１位氨基酸可能是水蛭素分子中另一个重要位点．     

The Use of Free Vibrations to Measure Peduncle Stiffness in Triticale

The possibility of using the period of free vibrations to determineelastic modulus and flexural rigidity of plant material withcontrasting elasticity to viscosity ratios was tested. A simple,easy-to-operate method is described. Both the mature sectionsof Triticale peduncle as well as those sampled from the meristematiczone were found to behave like a lightly damped linear oscillator,providing that the excitements were of a very small amplitude.Elastic modulus calculated from the period of free vibrationsfor the meristematic zone was consistent with most data reportedin the literature for other growing tissues investigated bythe resonance technique. A high gradient of elastic modulus,from 33 MPa to 2·89 GPa per 8 cm was found within thezone of differentiation and development of strengthening tissues.The applicability of the free vibration technique to study plantrigidity as compared to other methods is discussed. Key words: Triticosecale, free vibrations, peduncle, stiffness measurement, Young's modulus     

Reaction of Ants to, and Feeding Biology of, a Congeneric Myrmecophilous and Non-myrmecophilous Ladybird

Coccinella magnifica Redtenbacher lives only in close contact with species of the Formica rufa group. Laboratory experiments were set up to determine how this species may be adapted to living with ants by comparing its behaviour with that of the closely related Coccinella septempunctata L. Eggs and larvae of C. magnifica placed on the foraging trails of ants were bitten significantly less often by the ants than those of C. septempunctata. However, the ants responded similarly to the adults of both species. For these two species, the presence of ants resulted in a significant decrease in predation efficiency. However, C. magnifica was more efficient at catching aphids in the presence of ants than C. septempunctata. The behaviour of this myrmecophilous species is discussed by taking into account that it is a generalist in terms of prey specificity.     

The Use of Fatty Acid Esters to Enhance Free Acid Sophorolipid Synthesis

Fatty acid esters were prepared by transesterification of soy oil with methanol (methyl-soyate, Me-Soy), ethanol (ethyl-soyate, Et-Soy) and propanol (propyl-soyate, Pro-Soy) and used with glycerol as fermentation substrates to enhance production of free-acid sophorolipids (SLs). Fed-batch fermentations of Candida bombicola resulted in SL yields of 46 ± 4 g/l, 42 ± 7 g/l and 18 ± 6 g/l from Me-Soy, Et-Soy, and Pro-Soy, respectively. Liquid chromatography with atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry (LC/API-MS) showed that Me-Soy resulted in 71% open-chain SLs with 59% of those molecules remaining esterified at the carboxyl end of the fatty acids. Et-Soy and Pro-Soy resulted in 43% and 80% open-chain free-acid SLs, respectively (containing linoleic acid and oleic acid as the principal fatty acid species linked to the sophorose sugar at the omega-1 position), with no evidence of residual esterification. Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.     

Path integration in desert ants, Cataglyphis: how to make a homing ant run away from home

Path integration is an ant's lifeline on any of its foraging journeys. It results in a homebound global vector that continually informs the animal about its position relative to its starting point. Here, we use a particular (repeated training and displacement) paradigm, in which homebound ants are made to follow a familiar landmark route repeatedly from the feeder to the nest, even after they have arrived at the nest. The results show that during the repeated landmark-guided home runs the ant's path integrator runs continually, so that the current state of the homebound vector increasingly exceeds the reference state. The dramatic result is that the homing ants run away from home. This finding implies that the ants do not rely on cartographic information about the locations of nest and feeder (e.g. that the nest is always south of the feeder), but just behave according to what the state of their egocentric path integrator tells them.     

Changes in Stomatal Behavior and Guard Cell Cytosolic Free Calcium in Response to Oxidative Stress

We have investigated the cellular basis for the effects of oxidative stress on stomatal behavior using stomatal bioassay and ratio photometric techniques. Two oxidative treatments were employed in this study: (a) methyl viologen, which generates superoxide radicals, and (b) H2O2. Both methyl viologen and H2O2 inhibited stomatal opening and promoted stomatal closure. At concentrations [less than or equal to]10-5 M, the effects of methyl viologen and H2O2 on stomatal behavior were reversible and were abolished by 2 mM EGTA or 10 [mu]M verapamil. In addition, at 10-5 M, i.e. the maximum concentration at which the effects of the treatments were prevented by EGTA or verapamil, methyl viologen and H2O2 caused an increase in guard cell cytosolic free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i), which was abolished in the presence of EGTA. Therefore, at low concentrations of methyl viologen and H2O2, removal of extracellular Ca2+ prevented both the oxidative stress-induced changes in stomatal aperture and the associated increases in [Ca2+]i. This suggests that in this concentration range the effects of the treatments are Ca2+-dependent and are mediated by changes in [Ca2+]i. In contrast, at concentrations of methyl viologan and H2O2 > 10-5 M, EGTA and verapamil had no effect. However, in this concentration range the effects of the treatments were irreversible and correlated with a marked reduction in membrane integrity and guard cell viability. This suggests that at high concentrations the effects of methyl viologen and H2O2 may be due to changes in membrane integrity. The implications of oxidative stress-induced increases in [Ca2+]i and the possible disruption of guard-cell Ca2+ homeostasis are discussed in relation to the processes of Ca2+-based signal transduction in stomatal guard cells and the control of stomatal aperture.     

Ultimate Use of Two-Photon Fluorescence Microscopy to Map Orientational Behavior of Fluorophores

The orientational distribution of fluorophores is an important reporter of the structure and function of their molecular environment. Although this distribution affects the fluorescence signal under polarized-light excitation, its retrieval is limited to a small number of parameters. Because of this limitation, the need for a geometrical model (cone, Gaussian, etc.) to effect such retrieval is often invoked. In this work, using a symmetry decomposition of the distribution function of the fluorescent molecules, we show that polarized two-photon fluorescence based on tunable linear dichroism allows for the retrieval of this distribution with reasonable fidelity and without invoking either an a priori knowledge of the system to be investigated or a geometrical model. We establish the optimal level of detail to which any distribution can be retrieved using this technique. As applied to artificial lipid vesicles and cell membranes, the ability of this method to identify and quantify specific structural properties that complement the more traditional molecular-order information is demonstrated. In particular, we analyze situations that give access to the sharpness of the angular constraint, and to the evidence of an isotropic population of fluorophores within the focal volume encompassing the membrane. Moreover, this technique has the potential to address complex situations such as the distribution of a tethered membrane protein label in an ordered environment.     

Ultimate Use of Two-Photon Fluorescence Microscopy to Map Orientational Behavior of Fluorophores

The orientational distribution of fluorophores is an important reporter of the structure and function of their molecular environment. Although this distribution affects the fluorescence signal under polarized-light excitation, its retrieval is limited to a small number of parameters. Because of this limitation, the need for a geometrical model (cone, Gaussian, etc.) to effect such retrieval is often invoked. In this work, using a symmetry decomposition of the distribution function of the fluorescent molecules, we show that polarized two-photon fluorescence based on tunable linear dichroism allows for the retrieval of this distribution with reasonable fidelity and without invoking either an a priori knowledge of the system to be investigated or a geometrical model. We establish the optimal level of detail to which any distribution can be retrieved using this technique. As applied to artificial lipid vesicles and cell membranes, the ability of this method to identify and quantify specific structural properties that complement the more traditional molecular-order information is demonstrated. In particular, we analyze situations that give access to the sharpness of the angular constraint, and to the evidence of an isotropic population of fluorophores within the focal volume encompassing the membrane. Moreover, this technique has the potential to address complex situations such as the distribution of a tethered membrane protein label in an ordered environment.