Genetic correlation between circadian eclosion rhythm and photoperiodic diapause in Drosophila littoralis

Populations of Drosophila littoralis are known to be latitudinally highly variable in photoperiodic adult diapause and pupal eclosion rhythm. Phenotypic correlations between the two time-measuring systems among the strains from different latitudes are, however, weak. In the present study, two differing strains were crossed reciprocally in order to search for causal (genetic) correlations between the two traits in the strains. Segregation in the F2 generations showed that variation in each trait was based on a few variable loci only. In the F2, flies having different eclosion times also differed in their diapause. This association was not complete and could have been due to genetic linkage between the traits. For that reason, the hybrid generations were raised for eight generations more to allow recombination between the traits. In F8, selection against diapause was started in the lines by raising them in a light-dark cycle of 15:9, where only females of the southern type reproduce. After eight selected generations, the lines were studied for the traits. Diapause was completely of the southern type, and the eclosion rhythm had also changed in parallel. The change in the phase of the free-running rhythm was not complete. From the present experiment, and from earlier knowledge of the geographical variation in D. littoralis, I conclude that the same pacemaker that is seen in the eclosion rhythm could also participate in daylength measurement for diapause. However, there are also noncorrelated variable parts in the measuring systems of both traits, which may mask the correlated variation.     

QTL analysis of the photoperiodic response and clinal distribution of period alleles in Nasonia vitripennis

In seasonal environments, organisms synchronize their life cycle with the annual cycle of environmental factors. In many insect species, this includes a diapause response: a timed dormant stage that allows to survive harsh winter conditions. Previously, we have shown that larval diapause in the parasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis is induced by the mother upon exposure to a threshold number of short photoperiods (named switch point) and diapause response follows a latitudinal cline in natural populations. Here, we present a QTL analysis using two lines derived from the extremes of this clinal distribution: a northern line from Oulu, Finland and a southern line from Corsica, France. A genomic region on chromosome 1 and one on chromosome 5 were found to be associated with photoperiodic diapause induction. Interestingly, these regions contain the putative clock genes period, cycle (chromosome 1) and cryptochrome (chromosome 5). An analysis of period polymorphisms in seven European populations showed a clinal distribution of two main haplotypes that correlate with the latitudinal cline for diapause induction.     

Temperature and photoperiod affect stress resistance traits in Drosophila melanogaster

The long‐term survival of species and populations depends on their ability to adjust phenotypic values to environmental conditions. In particular, the capability of dealing with environmental stress to buffer detrimental effects on fitness is considered to be of pivotal importance. Resistance traits are readily modulated by a wide range of environmental factors. In the present study, Drosophila melanogaster Meigen is used to investigate plastic responses to temperature and photoperiod in stress resistance traits. The results reveal that stress resistance traits (cold, heat, starvation and desiccation resistance) are affected by the factors temperature and sex predominantly. Cooler temperatures compared with warmer temperatures increase cold tolerance, desiccation and starvation resistance, whereas they reduce heat tolerance. Except for heat resistance, females are more stress‐resistant than males. Stress resistance traits are also affected by photoperiod. Shorter photoperiods decrease cold tolerance, whereas longer photoperiods enhance desiccation resistance. Overall, thermal effects are pervasive throughout all measured resistance traits, whereas photoperiodic effects are of limited importance in the directly developing (i.e. nondiapausing) flies used here, suggesting that pronounced photoperiodic effects on stress resistance traits may be largely limited to, and triggered by, diapause‐inducing effects.     

Geographic variation in embryonic diapause,cold‐hardiness and life cycles in the migratory locust Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in China

To investigate geographic adaptation of the migratory locust Locusta migratoria in China, locusts were collected from six localities, ranging from 47.4°N to 19.2°N. Using offspring from the various populations, we compared embryonic diapause, reproductive traits, cold‐hardiness and adult body size. The incidence of embryonic diapause was influenced by the genetic makeup, parental photoperiod, and incubation temperature of the eggs. The northern strain (47.4°N) produced diapause eggs under all photoperiodic conditions, whereas the other strains produced a higher proportion of diapause eggs when exposed to a short photoperiod. The incubation temperature greatly influenced diapause induction. At a low temperature, all eggs entered diapause, even some of those from a tropical strain (19.2°N) in which no diapause was induced at high temperatures. Photoperiodic changes during the parental generation affected the incidence of embryonic diapause. Diapause intensity decreased with decreasing original latitude. Cold hardiness was compared by exposing eggs in diapause to either ?10 or ?20°C for various periods; the northern strain was more cold‐hardy than the southern strain, although some eggs in the tropical strain were probably not in a state of diapause. Adult body size and head width showed a complicated pattern of variation along the latitudinal gradient, whereas egg pod size (egg pod width and egg number) and hatchling weight tended to decrease with decreasing latitude. These results reveal that L. migratoria has adapted to local environments and that the latitudinal gradient appears to play an important role in shaping L. migratoria life cycle and development.     

Effects of photoperiodically induced reproductive diapause and cold hardening on the cold tolerance of Drosophila montana

Coping with seasonal and daily variation in environmental conditions requires that organisms are able to adjust their reproduction and stress tolerance according to environmental conditions. Females of Drosophila montana populations have adapted to survive over the dark and cold winters at high latitudes and altitudes by spending this season in photoperiodically controlled reproductive diapause and reproducing only in spring/summer. The present study showed that flies of a northern population of this species are quite tolerant of low temperatures and show high seasonal and short-term plasticity in this trait. Culturing the flies in short day length (nearly all females in reproductive diapause), as well as allowing the flies to get cold hardened before the cold treatment, increased the cold tolerance of both sexes both in chill coma recovery time test and in mortality assay. Chill coma recovery time test performed for the females of two additional D. montana populations cultured in a day length where about half of the females enter diapause, also showed that diapause can increase female cold tolerance even without a change in day length. Direct linkage between diapause and cold tolerance was found in only two strains representing a high-altitude population of the species, but the phenomenon will certainly be worth of studying in northern and southern populations of the species with larger data sets.     

The long summer: pre-wintering temperatures affect metabolic expenditure and winter survival in a solitary bee

The impact of climate change on insect populations depends on specific life cycle traits and physiological adaptations. The solitary bee Osmia lignaria winters as a pre-emergent adult, and requires a period of cold temperature for winter diapause completion. It is a univoltine species, and diapause induction does not depend on photoperiod. To understand the potential effects of longer summers on O. lignaria populations, we exposed individuals to three treatments simulating early, mid and late winter arrivals, and measured respiration rates, metabolic expenditure, weight loss, fat body depletion, lipid levels and winter mortality. The early-winter treatment disrupted diapause development, but had no apparent negative effects on fitness. In contrast, late-winter bees had a greater energetic expenditure (1.5-fold), weight (1.4-fold) and lipid (2-fold) loss, greater fat body depletion, and a 19% increase in mortality compared to mid-winter bees. We also monitored adult eclosion and arrival of winter temperatures under natural conditions in four years. We found a positive correlation between mean degree-day accumulation during pre-wintering (a measure of asynchrony between adult eclosion and winter arrival) and yearly winter mortality. Individually, bees experiencing greater degree-day accumulations exhibited reduced post-winter longevity. Timing of adult eclosion in O. lignaria is dependent on the duration of the prepupal period, which occurs in mid-summer, is also diapause-mediated, and is longer in populations from southerly latitudes. In a global warming scenario, we expect long summer diapause phenotypes to replace short summer diapause phenotypes, effectively maintaining short pre-wintering periods in spite of delayed winter arrivals.     

Adaptation to temperate climates

Only model organisms live in a world of endless summer. Fitness at temperate latitudes reflects the ability of organisms in nature to exploit the favorable season, to mitigate the effects of the unfavorable season, and to make the timely switch from one life style to the other. Herein, we define fitness as Ry, the year-long cohort replacement rate across all four seasons, of the mosquito, Wyeomyia smithii, reared in its natural microhabitat in processor-controlled environment rooms. First, we exposed cohorts of W. smithii, from southern, midlatitude, and northern populations (30-50 degrees N) to southern and northern thermal years during which we factored out evolved differences in photoperiodic response. We found clear evidence of evolved differences in heat and cold tolerance among populations. Relative cold tolerance of northern populations became apparent when populations were stressed to the brink of extinction; relative heat tolerance of southern populations became apparent when the adverse effects of heat could accumulate over several generations. Second, we exposed southern, midlatitude, and northern populations to natural, midlatitude day lengths in a thermally benign midlatitude thermal year. We found that evolved differences in photoperiodic response (1) prevented the timely entry of southern populations into diapause resulting in a 74% decline in fitness, and (2) forced northern populations to endure a warm-season diapause resulting in an 88% decline in fitness. We argue that reciprocal transplants across latitudes in nature always confound the effects of the thermal and photic environment on fitness. Yet, to our knowledge, no one has previously held the thermal year constant while varying the photic year. This distinction is crucial in evaluating the potential impact of climate change. Because global warming in the Northern Hemisphere is proceeding faster at northern than at southern latitudes and because this change represents an amelioration of the thermal environment and a concomitant increase in the duration of the growing season, we conclude that there should be more rapid evolution of photoperiodic response than of thermal tolerance as a consequence of global warming among northern, temperate ectotherms.     

Phenotypic plasticity,but not adaptive tracking,underlies seasonal variation in post‐cold hardening freeze tolerance of Drosophila melanogaster

In temperate regions, an organism's ability to rapidly adapt to seasonally varying environments is essential for its survival. In response to seasonal changes in selection pressure caused by variation in temperature, humidity, and food availability, some organisms exhibit plastic changes in phenotype. In other cases, seasonal variation in selection pressure can rapidly increase the frequency of genotypes that offer survival or reproductive advantages under the current conditions. Little is known about the relative influences of plastic and genetic changes in short‐lived organisms experiencing seasonal environmental fluctuations. Cold hardening is a seasonally relevant plastic response in which exposure to cool, but nonlethal, temperatures significantly increases the organism's ability to later survive at freezing temperatures. In the present study, we demonstrate seasonal variation in cold hardening in Drosophila melanogaster and test the extent to which plasticity and adaptive tracking underlie that seasonal variation. We measured the post‐cold hardening freeze tolerance of flies from outdoor mesocosms over the summer, fall, and winter. We bred outdoor mesocosm‐caught flies for two generations in the laboratory and matched each outdoor cohort to an indoor control cohort of similar genetic background. We cold hardened all flies under controlled laboratory conditions and then measured their post‐cold hardening freeze tolerance. Comparing indoor and field‐caught flies and their laboratory‐reared G1 and G2 progeny allowed us to determine the roles of seasonal environmental plasticity, parental effects, and genetic changes on cold hardening. We also tested the relationship between cold hardening and other factors, including age, developmental density, food substrate, presence of antimicrobials, and supplementation with live yeast. We found strong plastic responses to a variety of field‐ and laboratory‐based environmental effects, but no evidence of seasonally varying parental or genetic effects on cold hardening. We therefore conclude that seasonal variation in post‐cold hardening freeze tolerance results from environmental influences and not genetic changes.     

The influence of temperature and photoperiod on the reproductive diapause and cold tolerance of spotted‐wing drosophila,Drosophila suzukii

Knowledge regarding the reproductive status of spotted‐wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) (Diptera: Drosophilidae), is of critical importance in predicting potential infestations of this invasive pest, as eggs are laid in ripe or ripening fruit of several commercially important small‐fruit crops. Token environmental stimuli for the induction of reproductive diapause and improved cold tolerance were identified for D. suzukii. Diapause induction was evaluated by assessing, via dissection, the number of mature eggs carried by field‐captured D. suzukii and laboratory‐reared D. suzukii held under various temperature and photoperiod regimes. Egg load decreased over time in females trapped from July to December at sites in Benton County, OR, and Ontario County, NY, both USA, and reached zero eggs by December at all sites. Photoperiods below 14 h of day length led to reduced egg maturation in laboratory‐reared flies held at moderate temperatures (15 or 20 °C). Whereas very few mature eggs were found in females held at 10 °C under short‐ or long‐day photoperiods for several weeks after eclosion, a spontaneous return to ovarian maturity was observed in short‐day‐entrained females after 7 weeks. Diapause termination was investigated by evaluating fecundity in diapausing females returned to optimal environmental conditions. Whereas long‐day‐entrained flies began producing offspring immediately upon return to optimal conditions, short‐day‐entrained flies returned after 1 and 6 weeks at 10 °C were slower to produce offspring than colony flies or short‐day‐entrained flies returned after 7 weeks. Cold tolerance was evaluated by observing chill coma recovery rates after 24 h exposure to ?1 °C. Cold‐acclimated (diapausing) females recovered from chill coma faster than cold‐hardened or unacclimated females.     

Photoperiodic regulation of cold tolerance and expression levels of regucalcin gene in Drosophila montana

Temperature-induced plasticity of cold tolerance has been reported in many insect species, but cold tolerance can also be affected by changes in day (or night) length. In the present study we elucidate the direct and indirect effects of photoperiod on the cold tolerance of females of two Drosophila montana strains--one which possesses a robust photoperiodic diapause and another which does not. In the diapause-strain the time needed for recovery from chill coma showed a positive correlation with day length, but diapause itself played only a minor role in photoperiodic acclimation. The strain that was not able to enter to diapause as a response to day length also lacked photoperiodic cold acclimation ability indicating that this strain has deficiencies in its photoperiodic time measurement system. In the diapause-strain, the expression level of regucalcin gene was more than two times higher in diapausing than in non-diapausing females maintained in a single photoperiod, but day length per se did not cause significant changes in expression levels of this gene in either of the strains. In the non-diapausing strain this gene showed no expression changes in any comparison. Overall, the study shows that a decrease in day length can induce cold acclimation in D. montana, while changes in regucalcin expression are linked with photoperiodic diapause.     

Geographical and diapause-related cold tolerance in the blow fly,Calliphora vicina

Three geographical strains of the blow fly, Calliphora vicina, were tested for cold tolerance at 0 degrees, -4 degrees and -8 degrees C. Survival to eclosion after 1 to 18 days of cold exposure was greater for diapause-destined larvae than for nondiapause-destined larvae of the two northern strains (Nallikari, Finland 65 degrees N and Edinburgh, Scotland 55 degrees N) but not for the southernmost strain (Barga, Italy 44 degrees N) where no clear differences were apparent. Diapause-destined larvae of the Edinburgh strain were more cold tolerant than those from Nallikari, at both -4 degrees and -8 degrees C, a difference possibly attributable to the long-lasting snow cover in the more northern locality, which might insulate the overwintering soil microclimate. At 0 degrees C, however, Nallikari larvae were more cold tolerant than Edinburgh or Barga. This was also the case for nondiapause-destined larvae, indicating that cold tolerance may occur, in part, independently of the diapause programme. In all three strains diapausing larvae were more cold tolerant than same-age (nondiapausing) pupae. For Nallikari, but not Barga, wandering larvae from short-day exposed flies, therefore initially programmed for diapause, but diverted from the diapause pathway by larval breeding at 19 degrees C, were significantly more cold tolerant than nondiapause larvae from long-day parents, indicating some maternal regulation of larval cold tolerance. There was, however, no evidence for an additional cold hardiness in larvae acclimatised to cold by a gradual reduction of temperature.     

Inheritance patterns of photoperiodic diapause induction in Leptinotarsa decemlineata

Photoperiod is a reliable indicator of season and an important cue that many insects use for phenological synchronization. Undergoing range expansion insects can face a change in the local photoperiod to which they need to resynchronize. Rapid range expansion can be associated with rapid photoperiodic adaptation, which can be associated with intense selection on strongly heritable polygenic traits. Alternatively, it is proposed that, in insects with an XO sex‐determination system, genes with large effect residing on the sex chromosome could drive photoperiodic adaptation because the gene or genes are exposed to selection in the sex carrying only a single X‐chromosome. The present study seeks to understand which of these alternatives more likely explains the rapid photoperiodic adaptation in European Colorado potato beetles Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say. Diapause induction is assessed in beetles from a northern and a southern population, as well as from reciprocal hybrid crosses between the northern and southern population, when reared at an intermediate length photoperiod. The crosses within population display the expected responses, with the northern and southern populations showing high and low diapause propensity, respectively. The hybrids show intermediate responses in all studied traits. No clear difference in the responses in hybrids depending on the latitudinal origin of their father or mother is detected, even though partial paternal line dominance is seen in the responses of male beetles in one hybrid cross. These results therefore indicate that, in L. decemlineata, photoperiodic diapause induction is strongly heritable, and has an additive polygenic autosomal background.     

The life cycle of Trichocorixa verticalis interiores Sailer (Hemiptera, Corixidae) with special reference to diapause

SUMMARY. The life cycle of Trichocorixa verticalis interiores was studied in six Saskatchewan saline lakes. A detailed study of the timing of the stages in the life cycle showed that T. v. interiores has a life cycle which differs from that of all other Corixidae. This species overwinters solely in the egg stage. Females oviposit in the late summer and all adults die in the fall. The eggs, which remain in a pre-blastokinesis stage of embryonic development until the following spring, are prevented from developing in late summer by diapause which lasts approximately 2 months. Although diapause terminates in October, embryonic development does not occur in cold water during the winter months. Experimental results indicate that exposure to cold is not necessary to break diapause.     

Meta-analysis and candidate gene mining of low-phosphorus tolerance in maize

Plants with tolerance to low-phosphorus （P） can grow better under Iow-P conditions, and understanding of genetic mechanisms of Iow-P tolerance can not only facilitate identifying relevant genes but also help to develop Iow-P tolerant cultivars. QTL meta-analysis was conducted after a comprehensive review of the reports on O, TL mapping for Iow-P tolerance-related traits in maize. Meta-analysis pro- duced 23 consensus QTL （cQTL）, 17 of which located in similar chromosome regions to those previously reported to influence root traits. Meanwhile, candidate gene mining yielded 215 genes, 22 of which located in the cQTL regions. These 22 genes are homologous to 14 functionally characterized genes that were found to participate in plant Iow-P tolerance, including genes encoding miR399s, Pi transporters and purple acid phosphatases. Four cQTL loci （cQTL2-L cQTLS-3, cQTL6-2, and cQTL10-2） may play important roles for low-P tolerance because each contains more original QTL and has better consistency across previous reports.     

A test of genomic modularity among life‐history adaptations promoting speciation with gene flow

Speciation with gene flow may require adaptive divergence of multiple traits to generate strong ecologically based reproductive isolation. Extensive negative pleiotropy or physical linkage of genes in the wrong phase affecting these diverging traits may therefore hinder speciation, while genetic independence or “modularity” among phenotypic traits may reduce constraints and facilitate divergence. Here, we test whether the genetics underlying two components of diapause life history, initial diapause intensity and diapause termination timing, constrain differentiation between sympatric hawthorn and apple‐infesting host races of the fly Rhagoletis pomonella through analysis of 10,256 SNPs measured via genotyping‐by‐sequencing (GBS). Loci genetically associated with diapause termination timing were mainly observed for SNPs mapping to chromosomes 1–3 in the genome, most notably for SNPs displaying higher levels of linkage disequilibrium (LD), likely due to inversions. In contrast, selection on initial diapause intensity affected loci on all five major chromosomes of the genome, specifically those showing low levels of LD. This lack of overlap in genetically associated loci suggests that the two diapause phenotypes are largely modular. On chromosome 2, however, intermediate level LD loci and a subgroup of high LD loci displayed significant negative relationships between initial diapause intensity and diapause termination time. These gene regions on chromosome 2 therefore affected both traits, while most regions were largely independent. Moreover, loci associated with both measured traits also tended to exhibit highly divergent allele frequencies between the host races. Thus, the presence of nonoverlapping genetic modules likely facilitates simultaneous, adaptive divergence for the measured life‐history components.     

Mapping genes for phosphorus utilization and correlated traits using a 4k SNP linkage map in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica)

A large F2 cross with 920 Japanese quail was used to map QTL for phosphorus utilization, calcium utilization, feed per gain and body weight gain. In addition, four bone ash traits were included, because it is known that they are genetically correlated with the focal trait of phosphorus utilization. Trait recording was done at the juvenile stage of the birds. The individuals were genotyped genome‐wide for about 4k SNPs and a linkage map constructed, which agreed well with the reference genome. QTL linkage mapping was performed using multimarker regression analysis in a line cross model. Single marker association mapping was done within the mapped QTL regions. The results revealed several genome‐wide significant QTL. For the focal trait phosphorus utilization, a QTL on chromosome CJA3 could be detected by linkage mapping, which was substantiated by the results of the SNP association mapping. Four candidate genes were identified for this QTL, which should be investigated in future functional studies. Some overlap of QTL regions for different traits was detected, which is in agreement with the corresponding genetic correlations. It seems that all traits investigated are polygenic in nature with some significant QTL and probably many other small‐effect QTL that were not detectable in this study.     

Seasonal variation in generation time, diapause and cold hardiness in a central Ohio population of the flesh fly, Sarcophaga bullata

Abstract.

• 1 Generation time, diapause phenology and cold tolerance of the flesh fly, Sarcophaga bullata, were examined under confined natural conditions in central Ohio. In this locality, the fly can complete a maximum of four generations annually.
• 2 Very few pupae entered diapause in the first and second generations (May to July in 1988). In the third generation (August) 37% of the pupae entered an overwintering diapause, as did all pupae from the fourth generation (September).
• 3 The adult eclosion date in the spring and annual generation time can be predicted accurately from degree day data.
• 4 Cold tolerance of the field-overwintering portion of the population was high. After 30 days under field conditions, diapausing pupae readily survived a 7-day exposure to — 17°C. Glycerol appears to be the major cryoprotectant in S.bullata, and glycerol concentrations in the field population (95–142 mm ) remained high throughout the winter.
• 5 In contrast, diapausing flies reared under laboratory conditions (20°C, 12:12 LD) were less cold tolerant, and glycerol concentrations were lower (6.9–21.2 mm ). Field conditions thus promote the acquisition of high levels of cold tolerance, presumably as a consequence of the accumulation of higher concentrations of glycerol.
• 6 In spite of differences in the cold tolerance of laboratory and field flies, the supercooling points of the two groups of flies were nearly the same, thus implying that the supercooling point is not a good indicator of cold tolerance.

     

Mapping quantitative trait loci for egg production traits in an F2 intercross of Oh-Shamo and White Leghorn chickens

We performed quantitative trait locus (QTL) analyses for egg production traits, including age at first egg (AFE) and egg production rates (EPR) measured every 4 weeks from 22 to 62 weeks of hen age, in a population of 421 F₂ hens derived from an intercross between the Oh‐Shamo (Japanese Large Game) and White Leghorn breeds of chickens. Simple interval mapping revealed a main‐effect QTL for AFE on chromosome 1 and four main‐effect QTL for EPR on chromosomes 1 and 11 (three on chromosome 1 and one on chromosome 11) at the genome‐wide 5% levels. Among the three EPR QTL on chromosome 1, two were identified at the early stage of egg laying (26–34 weeks of hen age) and the remaining one was discovered at the late stage (54–58 weeks). The alleles at the two EPR QTL derived from the Oh‐Shamo breed unexpectedly increased the trait values, irrespective of the Oh‐Shamo being inferior to the White Leghorn in the trait. This suggests that the Oh‐Shamo, one of the indigenous Japanese breeds, is an untapped resource that is important for further improvement of current elite commercial laying chickens. In addition, six epistatic QTL were identified on chromosomes 2, 4, 7, 8, 17 and 19, where none of the above main‐effect QTL were located. This is the first example of detection of epistatic QTL affecting egg production traits. The main and epistatic QTL identified accounted for 4–8% of the phenotypic variance. The total contribution of all QTL detected for each trait to the phenotypic and genetic variances ranged from 4.1% to 16.9% and from 11.5% to 58.5%, respectively.     

Adaptive latitudinal cline of photoperiodic diapause induction in the parasitoid Nasonia vitripennis in Europe

Living in seasonally changing environments requires adaptation to seasonal cycles. Many insects use the change in day length as a reliable cue for upcoming winter and respond to shortened photoperiod through diapause. In this study, we report the clinal variation in photoperiodic diapause induction in populations of the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis collected along a latitudinal gradient in Europe. In this species, diapause occurs in the larval stage and is maternally induced. Adult Nasonia females were exposed to different photoperiodic cycles and lifetime production of diapausing offspring was scored. Females switched to the production of diapausing offspring after exposure to a threshold number of photoperiodic cycles. A latitudinal cline was found in the proportion of diapausing offspring, the switch point for diapause induction measured as the maternal age at which the female starts to produce diapausing larvae, and the critical photoperiod for diapause induction. Populations at northern latitudes show an earlier switch point, higher proportions of diapausing individuals and longer critical photoperiods. Since the photoperiodic response was measured under the same laboratory conditions, the observed differences between populations most likely reflect genetic differences in sensitivity to photoperiodic cues, resulting from local adaptation to environmental cycles. The observed variability in diapause response combined with the availability of genomic tools for N. vitripennis represent a good opportunity to further investigate the genetic basis of this adaptive trait.     

Immunological larval polyphenism in the map butterfly Araschnia levana reveals the photoperiodic modulation of immunity

The bivoltine European map butterfly (Araschnia levana) displays seasonal polyphenism characterized by the formation of two remarkably distinct dorsal wing phenotypes: The spring generation (A. levana levana) is predominantly orange with black spots and develops from diapause pupae, whereas the summer generation (A. levana prorsa) has black, white, and orange bands and develops from subitaneous pupae. The choice between spring or summer imagoes is regulated by the photoperiod during larval and prepupal development, but polyphenism in the larvae has not been investigated before. Recently, it has been found that the prepupae of A. levana display differences in immunity‐related gene expression, so we tested whether larvae destined to become spring (short‐day) or summer (long‐day) morphs also display differences in innate immunity. We measured larval survival following the injection of a bacterial entomopathogen (Pseudomonas entomophila), the antimicrobial activity in their hemolymph and the induced expression of selected genes encoding antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Larvae of the short‐day generation died significantly later, exhibited higher antibacterial activity in the hemolymph, and displayed higher induced expression levels of AMPs than those of the long‐day generation. Our study expands the seasonal polyphenism of A. levana beyond the morphologically distinct spring and summer imagoes to include immunological larval polyphenism that reveals the photoperiodic modulation of immunity. This may reflect life‐history traits that manifest as trade‐offs between immunity and fecundity.