ISG15 Arg151 and the ISG15-Conjugating Enzyme UbE1L Are Important for Innate Immune Control of Sindbis Virus

Interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) is a ubiquitin-like molecule that conjugates to target proteins via a C-terminal LRLRGG motif and has antiviral function in vivo. We used structural modeling to predict human ISG15 (hISG15) residues important for interacting with its E1 enzyme, UbE1L. Kinetic analysis revealed that mutation of arginine 153 to alanine (R153A) ablated hISG15-hUbE1L binding and transthiolation of UbcH8. Mutation of other predicted UbE1L-interacting residues had minimal effects on the transfer of ISG15 from UbE1L to UbcH8. The capacity of hISG15 R153A to form protein conjugates in 293T cells was markedly diminished. Mutation of the homologous residue in mouse ISG15 (mISG15), arginine 151, to alanine (R151A) also attenuated protein ISGylation following transfection into 293T cells. We assessed the role of ISG15-UbE1L interactions in control of virus infection by constructing double subgenomic Sindbis viruses that expressed the mISG15 R151A mutant. While expression of mISG15 protected alpha/beta-IFN-receptor-deficient (IFN-αβR^−/−) mice from lethality following Sindbis virus infection, expression of mISG15 R151A conferred no survival benefit. The R151A mutation also attenuated ISG15's ability to decrease Sindbis virus replication in IFN-αβR^−/− mice or prolong survival of ISG15^−/− mice. The importance of UbE1L was confirmed by demonstrating that mice lacking this ISG15 E1 enzyme were highly susceptible to Sindbis virus infection. Together, these data support a role for protein conjugation in the antiviral effects of ISG15.     

Involvement of UBE1L in ISG15 conjugation during retinoid-induced differentiation of acute promyelocytic leukemia

Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) cases expressing the t(15,17) product, promyelocytic leukemia (PML)/retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARalpha), have clinical remissions through leukemic cell differentiation after all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) treatment. This differentiation therapy propelled interest in uncovering molecular mechanisms for RA-dependent APL differentiation. We previously identified the ubiquitin-activating enzyme-E1-like protein (UBE1L) as an RA-regulated target gene in APL that triggers PML/RARalpha degradation and apoptosis. This study reports that conjugation of the ubiquitin-like species, interferon-stimulated gene, 15-kDa protein (ISG15), also occurs during RA-induced APL differentiation. Knock-down of UBE1L expression inhibited this conjugation. RA treatment of APL and other RA-responsive leukemic cells induced expression of UBE1L and ISG15 as well as intracellular ISG15 conjugates. Notably, ISG15 conjugation did not occur in RA-resistant NB4-R1 APL cells. Induction of UBE1L and ISG15 along with ISG15 conjugation in RA-sensitive NB4-S1 APL cells were detected following treatment with specific retinoids and type I interferon (IFN). UBE1L and ISG15 mRNAs were co-expressed in normal human tissues that were examined. In contrast, UBE1L mRNA expression was markedly repressed in several cancer cell lines. A physical association was found between UBE1L and ISG15 in vivo. This required the conserved diglycine motif in the carboxyl terminus of ISG15. Targeting UBE1L expression with small inhibitory RNA or small hairpin RNA inhibited IFN and RA-induced ISG15 conjugation. Formation of ISG15 conjugates through induction of an activating enzyme represents a novel pharmacologic mechanism for regulation of this ubiquitin-related species. Taken together, the observed rela tionship between expression of UBE1L and ISG15, their physical association and coordinate regulation, and induced ISG15 conjugation during leukemic cell differentiation implicate an important role for these proteins in retinoid response.     

Influenza B virus NS1 protein inhibits conjugation of the interferon (IFN)-induced ubiquitin-like ISG15 protein

Of the several hundred proteins induced by interferon (IFN) alpha/beta, the ubiquitin-like ISG15 protein is one of the most predominant. We demonstrate the novel way in which the function of the ISG15 protein is inhibited by influenza B virus, which strongly induces the ISG15 protein: a specific region of the influenza B virus NS1 protein, which includes part of its effector domain, blocks the covalent linkage of ISG15 to its target proteins both in vitro and in infected cells. We identify UBE1L as the E1 enzyme that catalyzes the first activation step in the conjugation of ISG15, and show that the NS1B protein inhibits this activation step in vitro. Influenza A virus employs a different strategy: its NS1 protein does not bind the ISG15 protein, but little or no ISG15 protein is produced during infection. We discuss the likely basis for these different strategies.     

The basis for selective E1-E2 interactions in the ISG15 conjugation system

E1 and E2 enzymes coordinate the first steps in conjugation of ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubls). ISG15 is an interferon-alpha/beta-induced Ubl, and the E1 and E2 enzymes for ISG15 conjugation are Ube1L and UbcH8, respectively. UbcH7 is the most closely related E2 to UbcH8, yet it does not function in ISG15 conjugation in vivo, while both UbcH7 and UbcH8 have been reported to function in Ub conjugation. Kinetic analyses of wild-type and chimeric E2s were performed to determine the basis for preferential activation of UbcH8 by Ube1L and to determine whether UbcH8 is activated equally well by Ube1L and E1(Ub) (Ube1). K(m) determinations confirmed the strong preference of Ube1L for UbcH8 over UbcH7 (a 29-fold K(m) difference), similar to the preference of E1(Ub) for UbcH7 over UbcH8 (a 36-fold K(m) difference). Thioester assays of chimeric E2s identified two structural elements within residues 1-39 of UbcH8 that play a major role in defining Ube1L-UbcH8 specificity: the alpha1-helix and the beta1-beta2 region. The C-terminal ubiquitin fold domain (UFD) of Ube1L was required for transfer of ISG15 to UbcH8 and for binding of Ube1L to UbcH8. Replacement of the Ube1L UFD with that from E1(Ub) resulted in preferential transfer of ISG15 to UbcH7. Together, these results indicate that Ube1L discriminates between UbcH8 and closely related Ub E2s based on specific interactions between the Ube1L UFD and determinants within the N-terminal region of UbcH8.     

HERC6 is the main E3 ligase for global ISG15 conjugation in mouse cells

Type I interferon (IFN) stimulates expression and conjugation of the ubiquitin-like modifier IFN-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15), thereby restricting replication of a wide variety of viruses. Conjugation of ISG15 is critical for its antiviral activity in mice. HECT domain and RCC1-like domain containing protein 5 (HerC5) mediates global ISGylation in human cells, whereas its closest relative, HerC6, does not. So far, the requirement of HerC5 for ISG15-mediated antiviral activity has remained unclear. One of the main obstacles to address this issue has been that no HerC5 homologue exists in mice, hampering the generation of a good knock-out model. However, mice do express a homologue of HerC6 that, in contrast to human HerC6, can mediate ISGylation.Here we report that the mouse HerC6 N-terminal RCC1-like domain (RLD) allows ISG15 conjugation when replacing the corresponding domain in the human HerC6 homologue. In addition, sequences in the C-terminal HECT domain of mouse HerC6 also appear to facilitate efficient ISGylation. Mouse HerC6 paralleled human HerC5 in localization and IFN-inducibility. Moreover, HerC6 knock-down in mouse cells abolished global ISGylation, whereas its over expression enhanced the IFNβ promoter and conferred antiviral activity against vesicular stomatitis virus and Newcastle disease virus. Together these data indicate that HerC6 is likely the functional counterpart of human HerC5 in mouse cells, suggesting that HerC6(-/-) mice may provide a feasible model to study the role of human HerC5 in antiviral responses.     

Rickettsia conorii infection stimulates the expression of ISG15 and ISG15 protease UBP43 in human microvascular endothelial cells

Rickettsia conorii, an obligate intracellular bacterium and the causative agent of Mediterranean spotted fever, preferentially infects microvascular endothelial cells of the mammalian hosts leading to onset of innate immune responses, characterized by the activation of intracellular signaling mechanisms, release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and killing of intracellular rickettsiae. Our recent studies have shown that interferon (IFN)-β, a cytokine traditionally considered to be involved in antiviral immunity, plays an important role in the autocrine/paracrine regulation of host defense mechanisms and control of R. conorii growth in the host endothelial cells. Here, we show that R. conorii infection induces the expression of ISG15 (an interferon-stimulated gene coding a protein of 17kD) and UBP43 (an ISG15-specific protease) at the levels of mRNA and protein and report the evidence of ISGylation of as yet unidentified target proteins in cultured human microvascular endothelium. Infection-induced expression of ISG15 and UBP43 requires intracellular replication of rickettsiae and production of IFN-β, because treatment with tetracycline and presence of an antibody capable of neutralizing IFN-β activity resulted in near complete attenuation of both responses. Inhibition of R. conorii-induced ISG15 by RNA interference results in significant increase in the extent of rickettsial replication, whereas UBP43 knockdown yields a reciprocal inhibitory effect. In tandem, these results demonstrate the stimulation of interferon-β-mediated innate immune mechanisms capable of perturbing the growth and replication of pathogenic rickettsiae and provide first evidence for ISG15-mediated post-translational modification of host cellular proteins during infection with an intracellular bacterium.     

Herc5, an interferon-induced HECT E3 enzyme, is required for conjugation of ISG15 in human cells

ISG15 is an interferon (IFN)-alpha/beta-induced ubiquitin-like protein that is conjugated to cellular proteins during innate immune responses to viral and bacterial infections. A recent proteomics study identified 158 human proteins targeted for ISG15 conjugation, including the ISG15 E1 and E2 enzymes (Ube1L and UbcH8, respectively) and a HECT E3 enzyme, Herc5. Like the genes encoding Ube1L and UbcH8, expression of Herc5 was also induced by IFN-beta, suggesting that Herc5 might be a component of the ISG15 conjugation system. Consistent with this, small interfering RNAs targeting Herc5 had a dramatic effect on overall ISG15 conjugation in human cells, abrogating conjugation to the vast majority of ISG15 target proteins in vivo. In addition, co-transfection of plasmids expressing ISG15, Ube1L, UbcH8, and Herc5 resulted in robust ISG15 conjugation in non-IFN-treated cells, while the active-site cysteine mutant of Herc5 or a mutant lacking the RCC1 repeat region did not support ISG15 conjugation. These results demonstrate that Herc5 is required for conjugation of ISG15 to a broad spectrum of target proteins in human cells.     

RNA interference mediated inhibition of Chikungunya virus replication in mammalian cells

Chikungunya has emerged as one of the most important arboviral infection of public health significance. Recently several parts of Indian Ocean islands and India witnessed explosive, unprecedented epidemic. So far, there is no effective antiviral or licensed vaccine available against Chikungunya infection. RNA interference mediated inhibition of viral replication has emerged as a promising antiviral strategy. In this study, we examined the effectiveness of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) against the inhibition of Chikungunya virus replication in Vero cells. Two siRNAs against the conserved regions of nsP3 and E1 genes of Chikungunya virus were designed. The siRNA activity was assessed by detecting both the infectious virus and its genome. The results indicated a reduction of virus titer up to 99.6% in siRNA transfected cells compared to control. The viral inhibition was most significant at 24 h (99%), followed by 48 h (65%) post infection. These results were also supported by the quantitative RT-PCR assay revealing similar reduction in Chikungunya viral genomic RNA. The siRNAs used had no effect on the expression of house keeping gene indicating non-interference in cellular mechanism. The specific and marked reduction in viral replication against rapidly replicating Chikungunya virus achieved in this study offers a potential new therapeutic approach. This is the first report demonstrating the effectiveness of siRNA against in vitro replication of Chikungunya virus.     

A novel role for ATM in regulating proteasome-mediated protein degradation through suppression of the ISG15 conjugation pathway

Ataxia Telangiectasia (A-T) is an inherited immunodeficiency disorder wherein mutation of the ATM kinase is responsible for the A-T pathogenesis. Although the precise role of ATM in A-T pathogenesis is still unclear, its function in responding to DNA damage has been well established. Here we demonstrate that in addition to its role in DNA repair, ATM also regulates proteasome-mediated protein turnover through suppression of the ISG15 pathway. This conclusion is based on three major pieces of evidence: First, we demonstrate that proteasome-mediated protein degradation is impaired in A-T cells. Second, we show that the reduced protein turnover is causally linked to the elevated expression of the ubiquitin-like protein ISG15 in A-T cells. Third, we show that expression of the ISG15 is elevated in A-T cells derived from various A-T patients, as well as in brain tissues derived from the ATM knockout mice and A-T patients, suggesting that ATM negatively regulates the ISG15 pathway. Our current findings suggest for the first time that proteasome-mediated protein degradation is impaired in A-T cells due to elevated expression of the ISG15 conjugation pathway, which could contribute to progressive neurodegeneration in A-T patients.     

Crystal structure of human ISG15 protein in complex with influenza B virus NS1B

ISG15 (interferon-stimulated gene 15), the first ubiquitin-like protein (UBL) identified, has emerged as an important cellular antiviral factor. It consists of two UBL domains with a short linker between them. The covalent attachment of ISG15 to host and viral proteins to modify their functions, similar to ubiquitylation, is named ISGylation. Influenza B virus NS1B protein antagonizes human but not mouse ISGylation because NS1B exhibits species specificity; it only binds human and non-human primate ISG15. Previous studies have demonstrated that the N-terminal UBL domain and linker of ISG15 are required for the binding by NS1B and that the linker plays a large role in the species specificity, but the structural basis for them has not been elucidated. Here we report the crystal structure of human ISG15 in complex with NS1B at a resolution of 2.0 Å. A loop in the ISG15 N-terminal UBL domain inserts into a pocket in the NS1B dimer, forming a high affinity binding site. The nonspecific van der Waals contacts around the ISG15 linker form a low affinity site for NS1B binding. However, sequence alignment reveals that residues in the high affinity site are highly conserved in primate and non-primate ISG15. We propose that the low affinity binding around the ISG15 linker is important for the initial contact with NS1B and that the stable complex formation is largely contributed by the following high affinity interactions between ISG15 N-terminal UBL domain and NS1B. This provides a structural basis for the species-specific binding of ISG15 by the NS1B protein.     

Vaccinia virus E3 protein prevents the antiviral action of ISG15

The ubiquitin-like modifier ISG15 is one of the most predominant proteins induced by type I interferons (IFN). In this study, murine embryo fibroblast (MEFs) and mice lacking the gene were used to demonstrate a novel role of ISG15 as a host defense molecule against vaccinia virus (VACV) infection. In MEFs, the growth of replication competent Western Reserve (WR) VACV strain was affected by the absence of ISG15, but in addition, virus lacking E3 protein (VVDeltaE3L) that is unable to grow in ISG15+/+ cells replicated in ISG15-deficient cells. Inhibiting ISG15 with siRNA or promoting its expression in ISG15-/- cells with a lentivirus vector showed that VACV replication was controlled by ISG15. Immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that E3 binds ISG15 through its C-terminal domain. The VACV antiviral action of ISG15 and its interaction with E3 are events independent of PKR (double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase). In mice lacking ISG15, infection with VVDeltaE3L caused significant disease and mortality, an effect not observed in VVDeltaE3L-infected ISG15+/+ mice. Pathogenesis in ISG15-deficient mice infected with VVDeltaE3L or with an E3L deletion mutant virus lacking the C-terminal domain triggered an enhanced inflammatory response in the lungs compared with ISG15+/+-infected mice. These findings showed an anti-VACV function of ISG15, with the virus E3 protein suppressing the action of the ISG15 antiviral factor.     

Recombination during early herpes simplex virus type 1 infection is mediated by cellular proteins

Homologous recombination was examined in cells infected with herpes simplex virus type I. Circular and linear DNA with directly repeated sequences was introduced as recombination substrates into cells. Recombination was measured either by origin-dependent amplification of recombination products or by recombination-dependent expression of luciferase from a disrupted gene. Homologous recombination in baby hamster kidney cells converted linear DNA to circular templates for DNA replication and luciferase expression in the complete absence of virus. The products of homologous recombination were efficiently amplified by the viral replication apparatus. The efficiency of recombination was dependent on the structure of the substrate as well as the cell type. Linear DNA with the direct repeats at internal positions failed to recombine in Balb/c 3T3 cells and induced p53-dependent apoptosis. In contrast, linear DNA with directly repeated sequences precisely at the ends recombined and replicated in 3T3 cells. Homologous recombination in baby hamster kidney cells did not depend on the position of the repeated sequences. We conclude that homologous recombination is independent of viral gene functions and that it is likely to be carried out by cellular proteins. We suggest that homologous recombination between directly repeated sequences in the linear herpes simplex virus type 1 chromosome may help to avoid p53-dependent apoptosis and to promote viral DNA replication.     

Nuclear import of the respiratory syncytial virus matrix protein is mediated by importin beta1 independent of importin alpha

The matrix (M) protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) plays an important role in virus assembly through specific interactions with RSV nucleocapsids and envelope glycoproteins in the cytoplasm as well as with the host cell membrane. We have previously shown that M localizes to the nucleus of infected cells at an early stage in the RSV infection cycle, where it may be instrumental in inhibiting host cell processes. The present study uses transient expression of M as well as a truncated green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion derivative to show for the first time that M is able to localize in the nucleus in the absence of other RSV gene products, through the action of amino acids 110-183, encompassing the nucleic acid binding regions of the protein, that are sufficient to target GFP to the nucleus. Using native PAGE, ELISA-based binding assays, a novel Alphascreen assay, and an in vitro nuclear transport assay, we show that M is recognized directly by the importin beta1 nuclear import receptor, which mediates its nuclear import in concert with the guanine nucleotide-binding protein Ran. Retention of M in the nucleus through binding to nuclear components, probably mediated by the putative zinc finger domain of M, also contributes to M nuclear accumulation. This is the first report of the importin binding and nuclear import properties of a gene product from a negative sense RNA virus, with implications for the function of RSV M and possibly other viral M proteins in the nucleus of infected cells.     

mHERC6 is the essential ISG15 E3 ligase in the murine system

Posttranslational protein modification by ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like modifiers (UBLs) is mediated by a hierarchical cascade of conjugating enzymes and affects multiple biological processes within the cell. Interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) is an UBL, which is strongly induced by type I Interferon and ISG15 modification was shown to play an essential role in antiviral defense. While hHERC5 is the major E3 ligase for ISG15 modification in humans, ISGylation in the murine systems at the level of E3 ligases was weakly characterized as rodent genomes lack a direct homologue of hHERC5. Here, we show that mHERC6 is strongly induced by different pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in a type I Interferon receptor (IFNAR1) dependent manner. We demonstrate that mHERC6 is essential for endogenous murine ISGylation and thus represents the dominant ISG15 E3 ligase in mice. In contrast to its human homologue, mHERC6 is also capable to mediate conjugation of human ISG15.     

Porcine arterivirus infection of alveolar macrophages is mediated by sialic acid on the virus

Recently, we showed that porcine sialoadhesin (pSn) mediates internalization of the arterivirus porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in alveolar macrophages (Vanderheijden et al., J. Virol. 77:8207-8215, 2003). In rodents and humans, sialoadhesin, or Siglec-1, has been described as a macrophage-restricted molecule and to specifically bind sialic acid moieties. In the current study, we investigated whether pSn is a sialic acid binding protein and, whether so, whether this property is important for its function as a PRRSV receptor. Using untreated and neuraminidase-treated sheep erythrocytes, we showed that pSn binds sialic acid. Furthermore, pSn-specific monoclonal antibody 41D3, which blocks PRRSV infection, inhibited this interaction. PRRSV attachment to and infection of porcine alveolar macrophages (PAM) were both shown to be dependent on the presence of sialic acid on the virus: neuraminidase treatment of virus but not of PAM blocked infection and reduced attachment. Enzymatic removal of all N-linked glycans on the virus with N-glycosidase F reduced PRRSV infection, while exclusive removal of nonsialylated N-linked glycans of the high-mannose type with endoglycosidase H had no significant effect. Free sialyllactose and sialic acid containing (neo)glycoproteins reduced infection, while lactose and (neo)glycoproteins devoid of sialic acids had no significant effect. Studies with linkage-specific neuraminidases and lectins indicated that alpha2-3- and alpha2-6-linked sialic acids on the virion are important for PRRSV infection of PAM. From these results, we conclude that pSn is a sialic acid binding lectin and that interactions between sialic acid on the PRRS virion and pSn are essential for PRRSV infection of PAM.     

Emerging role of ISG15 in antiviral immunity

Cells express a plethora of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in response to viral infection. Among these is ISG15, a ubiquitin-like protein (UBL) that can be covalently attached to both host and viral proteins. Here we review recent advances toward understanding the role and mechanism of ISG15 modification in antiviral defense.     

Long-term control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection is mediated by dynamic immune responses

The primary goal of this study was to determine how chronic exposure to Ag influences the functionality of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific T cell responses. The frequency of IFN-gamma-producing effector CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells dynamically changed during persistent M. tuberculosis infection. CD8(+) T cells used differential effector functions during acute and chronic phases of the immune response, where CD8(+) T cells produced negligible amounts of IFN-gamma early in infection, but switched to cytokine production during the chronic stage of infection. Using limiting dilution analysis, CD8(+) T cells isolated during the initial phase of infection demonstrated lytic potential, but this waned in the chronic stage. The apparent loss of cytotoxic activity was not associated with the lack of perforin. Ag dose could potentially govern the functional program of CD8(+) T cells. Collectively, these results depict a host immune response mounted against M. tuberculosis of a significantly more dynamic nature than previously recognized.