Spatial Distribution of Ethylene Production by Individual Needles Along a Shoot ofPinus sylvestrisL.: Relationship with Peroxidase Activity

Spatial distribution of ethylene production by individual currentyear needles and the relationship with peroxidase activity wasstudied along a shoot of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.). Muchvariation in ethylene production between and within individualseedlings was found. There was a significant difference in meanintensity of ethylene production between orthostichies withinindividual seedlings. The capacity of individual needles toconvert 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) to ethylenedid not correlate with the basal rate of ethylene production.Mean ethylene production intensity by orthostichies correlatedpositively with mean peroxidase activity. A positive correlationbetween the intensity of ethylene production by individual needlesand detachment-induced peroxidase activity was found. The datasuggests that the rate of ethylene production by individualneedles may be directly related to their peroxidase activityand at least in part to their antioxidative capacity.Copyright1998 Annals of Botany Company Pinus sylvestris,pine, ethylene production, spatial distribution, individual needles, peroxidase, seasonal changes.     

The ion concentration of dew condensed on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles

Summary Dew droplets collected with pipettes from coniferous needles were analysed for their ionic composition. Almost all samples of dew taken from Scots pine trees (Pinus sylvestris) showed significantly higher ion concentrations than those taken from Norway spruce trees (Picea abies). This can be explained by the micromorphology of the needle surface. The higher microscale roughness of the wax layer of a pine needle causes a more efficient flux of atmospheric aerosol particles compared to the spruce needle surface. Dew on coniferous needles is shown to be capable of maintaining pH values below 3 for several hours.     

Influence of atmospheric pollution on the morphological parameters of the assimilation apparatus of pine and spruce in the basin of the Northern Dvina

The dynamics of damage and litter of the needles of pine Pinus sylvestris (L.) and spruce Picea obovata Ledeb. × P. abies (L.) Karst. in the basin of the Northern Dvina under atmospheric pollution was studied. Correlations of morphometric parameters of the assimilation apparatus with the distance to the source of emissions and concentrations of pollutants in the air, snow, and soil and heavy metals in needles were revealed.     

Dehydrin stress proteins in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> L. needles under conditions of extreme climate of Yakutia

This is the first study to investigate stress proteins dehydrins with the use of specific antibodies in the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles and their changes in the annual cycle under extreme climate of Yakutia. No pronounced polymorphism of major dehydrins (14–15 and 66 kDa) has been found during the winter dormancy period of P. sylvestris. A clear correlation between the seasonal variations in dehydrins and changes in the water content in needles was revealed. Consistently high levels of dehydrins was retained throughout the period of low negative temperatures. It is assumed that dehydrins can participate in the formation of P. sylvestris L. resistance to the permafrost conditions.     

The Effects of Simazine, Applied for Weed Control, on the Mycorrhizal Development of Pinus Seedlings

The herbicide Simazine is widely used in forestry nurseries.Its effect on the incidence of ectomycorrhizae on pine seedlingroot systems was investigated. Under field (nursery) conditions,at routine rates of application, Simazine does not inhibit mycorrhizaldevelopment in Pinus sylvestris and P. nigra, and it may, undersome conditions, actually enhance mycorrhizal formation. Sucha stimulatory effect was also obtained with pot-grown seedlingstreated with the herbicide. It is suggested that soil type andclimatic factors might be involved in determining the responseto Simazine. The mode of stimulation of mycorrhizal developmentby this herbicide is not understood, but it is not via suppressionof weed growth. Pinus sylvestris, Pinus nigra, pine seedlings, ectomycorrhizae, Simazine     

Indirect Measurement of Pore Size and Permeability in Scots Pine and Norway Spruce

Five experiments to investigate the water relationships of Scotspine and Norway spruce sapwood are described. Field exposureof stakes, and their moisture characteristic relating wood moisturecontent to the water potential of the surroundings showed thatspruce had a lower moisture content than pine under the sameconditions. A pore size distribution derived from the characteristicsshowed more large pores in spruce than in pine, but in sprucethere were also more small pores. The inference was that thelarge pores of spruce were readily accessible to water, allowinga fast rate of water uptake, as found in the wick action andswelling investigations, while the small pores were not accessible,resulting in a low rate of water uptake and a low rate of swelling.The possibility is briefly discussed that it is the pore sizedistribution of the two woods which determines their water relationships,and the difference in pore size which determines their treatability. Key words: Pinus sylvestris L, Picea abies (L) Karst, Pore size, Water uptake     

Effects of freeze-thaw injury on parameters of distributed electrical circuits of stems and needles of Scots pine seedlings at different stages of acclimation

Frost hardening and frost injury of both the stems and needlesof Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings were studied byelectrical impedance analysis. This impedance analysis was basedon equivalent circuits with distributed circuit elements (DCE).A double-DCE model for stems and two single-DCE models for needlesprovided excellent fit to the experimental impedance data. However,the single-DCE model for needles which takes into account theasymmetry of the impedance arc proved more appropriate thanthe symmetric model. Several parameters changed in proportionto frost injury. In stems, extracellular resistance and onerelaxation time decreased with increasing damage, whereas intracellularresistance remained relatively unchanged. In needles, the overallpattern for extracellular resistance and relaxation time wassimilar to that in the stem. Intracellular resistance remainedapproximately constant in the case of the symmetric DCE model.During frost hardening, both extracellular and intracellularresistance increased in stems. In needles, extracellular resistanceincreased but relaxation time decreased with hardening. Theskewness of the impedance spectra in the Cole-Cole plot forneedles increased with hardening. The coefficient for distributionof the relaxation time(s) did not change in either stems orneedles with frost hardening but some changes were found withfrost damage. Key words: Pinus sylvestris L, electrical impedance, equivalent circuit, frost hardening, frost injury     

Is the Lower Shade Tolerance of Scots Pine,Relative to Pedunculate Oak,Related to the Composition of Photosynthetic Pigments?

Foliage of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) was collected in a mixed pine/oak forest at canopy positions differing in radiation environment. In both species, chlorophyll (Chl) a/b ratios were higher in foliage of canopy positions exposed to higher irradiance as compared to more shaded crown layers. Throughout the growing season, pine needles exhibited significantly lower Chl a/b ratios than oak leaves acclimated to a similar photon availability. Hence, pine needles showed shade-type pigment characteristics relative to foliage of oak. At a given radiation environment, pine needles tended to contain more neoxanthin and lutein per unit of Chl than oak leaves. The differences in pigment composition between foliage of pine and oak can be explained by a higher ratio of outer antennae Chl to core complex Chl in needles of P. sylvestris which enhances the efficiency of photon capture under limiting irradiance. The shade-type pigment composition of pine relative to oak foliage could have been due to a reduced mesophyll internal photon exposure of chloroplasts in needles of Scots pine, resulting from their xeromorphic anatomy. Hence, the higher drought tolerance of pine needles could be achieved at the expense of shade tolerance.     

Characterization of cell wall properties in needles from Scotch pine trees of various vigor

Ion-exchange properties of needle cell walls were studied on healthy and severely weakened Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees subjected to industrial pollutions with sulfur and heavy metals. Three types of cation-exchange groups were identified: carboxylic groups of polygalacturonic acid, carboxylic groups unrelated to polygalacturonic acid, and phenolic OH-groups. The needles of impaired trees (vigor state IV) differed from needles of healthy plants (vigor state I) by a higher coefficient of cell wall swelling, higher nitrogen content, and lower content of ion-exchanging groups in the cell wall structure. It is supposed that differences in ion-exchange capacity of cell walls could be among the causes for distribution of pine trees into several groups according to their vigor.     

Electron Microscopy of the Epidermis and Cuticle of the Needles of Pinus nigra var. maritima in relation to infection by Lophodermella sulcigena

Changes in the ultrastructure of the epidermis and cuticle ofCorsican pine (Pinus nigra var. maritima (Aiton) Melville) inrelation to infection of the needle by Lophodermella sulcigena(Rostr.) v Hohn were recorded throughout a growing season. Epidermalcells when young had thin walls and a thin smooth cuticle: bothstructures thickened with age, and the needle surface becamerough. Densely packed wax tubes developed around the stomatalpore and later became scattered over the needle surface. Themicro-flora present on the needles is briefly noted. Changesin the structure and micro-flora of needles as they aged arethought to contribute to the confinement of infection by L.sulcigena to the needle bases.     

Effect of acid rain on pine needles as food for capercaillie in winter

The effects of long-range air pollution on the chemical composition of needles of Scots pinePinus sylvestris and consequences for capercaillieTetrao urogallus feeding on the needles were studied. Samples of pine needles from localities receiving different amounts of acid rain were taken in early March. Concentrations of N and P were highest in needles from the most acidified areas, and N concentration was 35% higher in the most heavily polluted area than in the least polluted. Secondary chemicals decreased significantly with increasing acidification. Concentrations of Cd in pine needles were closely correlated with the acid deposition levels, with highest concentrations in the most polluted area. Al concentration also increased with increasing acidification. These results provide evidence that acid rain increases the nutritive value of pine needles through a fertilizing effect. Enhanced levels of certain metals are considered too low to be directly toxic to capercaillie. However, behavioural anomalies cannot be excluded.     

Carbon isotope discrimination and stomatal responses of mature Pinus sylvestris L. trees exposed in situ for three years to elevated CO2 and temperature

The Climate Change Experiment (CLIMEX) is a unique large scale facility in which an entire undisturbed catchment of boreal vegetation has been exposed to elevated CO₂ (560 ppm) and temperature (+3°C summer, +5°C winter) for the past three years with all the soil-plant-atmosphere linkages intact. Here, carbon isotope composition and stomatal density have been analysed from sequential year classes of needles of mature Scots pine trees (Pinus sylvestris L.) to investigate the response of time-integrated water-use efficiency (UWE) and stomatal density to CO₂ enrichment and climate change. Carbon isotope discrimination decreased and WUE increased in cohorts of needles developing under increased CO₂ and temperature, compared to needles on the same trees developing in pretreatment years. Mid-season instantaneous gas exchange, measured on the same trees for the past four years, indicated that these responses resulted from higher needle photosynthetic rates and reduced stomatal conductance. Needles of P. sylvestris developing under increased CO₂ and temperature had consistently lower stomatal densities than their ambient grown counterparts on the same trees. The stomatal density of P. sylvestris needles was inversely correlated with δ¹³C-derived WUE, implying some effect of this morphological response on leaf gas exchange. Future atmospheric CO₂ and temperature increases are therefore likely to improve the water economy of P. sylvestris, at least at the scale of individual needles, by affecting stomatal density and gas exchange processes.     

Variation in needle terpenoids among Pinus sylvestris L. (Pinaceae) provenances from Turkey

Variation of terpenes and resin acids in needles of young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings from nine different provenances in Turkey was investigated. The provenances represent 1200-km West to East and 400-km South to North transects. Seven monoterpenes and two sesquiterpenes were reported in the needles of pines studied. Generally, the kinds of terpenes were similar but the relative amount of some compounds differed among the origins. The major components of the monoterpene fraction in Turkish sources were α-pinene (84.8%), β-pinene (4.1%) and limonene (3.0%), corresponding to 91.9% of the crude needle extract. In a PCA-analysis, 3-carene, myrcene and terpinolene in seedlings from Turkish provenances were quite low and thus, they were clearly different from a Northern European Scots pine provenance from Finland. In the resin acid fraction, abietic acid (62.4%) and dehydroabietic acid (16.1%) were the most abundant constituents in the needles of the Scots pine from Turkish provenances.     

马尾松毛虫对马尾松和湿地松的选择与适应研究

用马尾松老叶、新叶,湿地松老叶、新叶,当年生马尾松新叶、湿地松新叶和当年生以20％和40％β-蒎烯处理过的马尾松新叶作食料饲养马尾松毛虫。结果表明：马尾松毛虫幼虫在第1代发生期取食马尾松老叶、马尾松新叶、湿地松老叶和湿地松新叶等4种不同质量的食料后,因其食料中10种必需氨基酸含量和挥发性物质β-蒎烯含量的不同,导致幼虫的存活率差异显著。其中,取食马尾松老叶的幼虫成活率最高（44％）,依次为马尾松新叶（32.7％）、湿地松老叶（4％）,而取食湿地松新叶的幼虫全部死亡。通过马尾松针叶增加外援β-蒎烯喂养马尾松毛虫实验,表明增加了外源β-蒎烯的松针饲养的马尾松毛虫幼虫与用同样松针未增加外源β-蒎烯饲养的幼虫相比,死亡率明显提高;松树中β-蒎烯含量的增加与幼虫成活率呈显著负相关。由此,我们阐明了马尾松与湿地松对马尾松毛虫的抗虫机制。     

Structure and CO2 Exchange in the Needles of Pinus sylvestris and Abies sibirica

The morphological and functional organization of the needles of Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Siberian fir (Abies sibirica Ledeb.), which differ in their light requirement were studied. The characteristic properties of the high-light-requiring pine included high rates of apparent photosynthesis and dark respiration, high assimilation number, numerous folds in mesophyll cell walls, and increased partial volume of intercellular spaces and hyaloplasm in the mesophyll. In the needles of shade-enduring fir, the higher efficiency of photosynthesis at low light intensities depended on the higher number of membranes and higher pigment content in the chloroplasts. The low assimilation number in fir indicated a shortage of photosynthetic reaction centers. The relative volume of the vascular cylinder and the vascular bundles in the needles and the partial volume of chloroplasts in the hyaloplasm, are considered as indices of the rate of assimilate export from mesophyll cells and their possible damping at different levels of structural organization.     

The Influence of Pine on the Form of Sitka Spruce Fine Roots

The form of fine roots of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Bong.Carr.) when grown in immediate proximity to roots of Scots pine(Pinus sylvestris L.) and when grown separately was comparedusing split-root systems. When spruce roots were intimatelymixed with pine roots the mean length of individual spruce lateralswas significantly greater, while the length: weight ratio andnumber of root tips: weight ratio were smaller than when grownalone. A similar alteration in growth strategy was achievedby direct addition of mineral nitrogen. Key words: Fine root form, pine-spruce interactions     

Effect of provenance on free amino acid and chemical composition of Scots pine needles

Free amino acid (16 amino acids) and chemical composition (N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn) of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles were compared between six provenances in three different experimental areas. The main free amino acids in the needles were in the sequence of quantity; glutamic acid, glutamine, arginine and γ-aminobutyric acid. There were no significant differences in the concentrations of phenylalanine, γ-aminobutyric acid, methionine, proline and threonine in pine needles between the sites or between the provenances. Significant differences in the foliar concentrations of alanine and leucine were found between the sites and in the foliar concentrations of isoleucine, glutamine, glycine and tyrosine between the provenances. The concentrations of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, arginine and lysine were significantly affected by the sites and the provenances. The foliar nutrients, except copper, had statistically significant differences, both between the sites and between the provenances. Calcium did not differ between the provenances. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Movement of Nutrients in Radiata Pine Needles in Relation to the Growth of Shoots

The pattern of needle growth and the movement of mineral nutrients(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium) in needles ofradiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) were studied from needleinitiation to 2 years of age. During this period, very prominentcyclic patterns of nutrient accumulation, retranslocation andreplenishment were observed for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium,which highlighted the potential role of needles as a nutrientreserve for growth. Significant retranslocation occurred from very young needlesabout 3 months after initiation. The phases of retranslocationcoincided with new flushes of shoot growth, and the growth ofnew shoots on a branch resulted in nutrient withdrawal frompre-existing needles, regardless of needle age and season. Suchwithdrawal occurred even in fertilized and irrigated trees onhigh quality sites and under environmental conditions conducivefor nutrient uptake. At all times, except for the short periodafter initiation when needles were actively growing, the nutrientsin the needle were readily available for retranslocation. Contraryto the general view, retranslocation of nutrients was not necessarilyrelated to senescence and ageing of needles. Because new shoots are the primary ‘sinks’ for retranslocatednutrients, an ongoing competition between different parts ofa branch for internal nutrients can be envisaged, preferencebeing for the youngest shoot in the hierarchy. The relevanceof these results to our understanding of ‘optimum nutrition’of pine trees is discussed. Pinus radiata D. Don, radiata pine, mineral nutrition, retranslocation, phosphorus, nitrogen, shoot growth     

Adaptive Responses of Morphological Forms of the Pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> L.) under Stressful Conditions of the Northern Taiga (in the Northern Dvina Basin)

The variability of physiological and biochemical indicators and radial growth of different forms of Pinus sylvestris L. f. (var.) sulfuranthera Kozubow and f. (var.) erythranthera Sanio under flooding conditions has been studied. It is shown that the dynamics of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids), proline, proteins, ascorbic acid, peroxidase activity, and the light-harvesting complex in the pine needles depend on meteorologic factors and the phenophase. Forms with different colors of anthers differ in seasonal dynamics of the content of stressful metabolites and age variability of the radial growth of wood. Our results indicate that different forms of Pinus sylvestris L. have nuances in adaptation to stress conditions.     

Seasonal changes in the fatty acid composition of Pinus sylvestris needle lipids

The fatty acid (FA) composition of common pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needle lipids was studied. It was shown that FA composition of needle lipids changed during the entire growth period (from March to October) under the influence of environmental factors (temperature, solar radiation) affecting the biosynthesis of chloroplast membrane lipids in pine needles. Among needle lipid FAs, unsaturated polymethylene-interrupted FAs (Δ5-UPIFA) were identified: pinolenic, skiadonic, coniferonic, and other); in March and April, their content attained 16.1 and 16.9% of total FAs; it decreased in June to 6.0% and increased again in September to 20.4%.