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1.
Previous studies of reproductive structures in the helobial monocotyledons (Alismatidae) indicate that partitioning between
flower and inflorescence is not always clear (e.g.,Lilaea,Scheuchzeria) and that this may be the result of ancestral, unisexual modules coming together to form flowers and/or inflorescences. Later
evolutionary changes may have included the inflorescence becoming involved or mixed in with vegetative growth. Substitution
of vegetative buds for flowers is the simplest version, and there can be additional modifications to the growth behavior of
the inflorescence, such as horizontal growth and dorsiventrality. In the Alismataceae and Limnocharitaceae the derivation
of stolonlike structures from inflorescences is obvious: vegetative features have been incorporated into structures that are
recognizably inflorescences. In the Hydrocharitaceae the interrelationships between the inflorescence and the vegetative body
are much less well defined. We previously suggested forHydrocharis, where a single axillary complex can contain both inflorescence and stolons, that the stolon is basically a sterilized inflorescence
and that features of the inflorescence have become incorporated into the vegetative body. Here we will explore this theme
further for the Hydrocharitaceae, using information from within and outside the family. 相似文献
2.
In vitro shoot regeneration from sterile leaf and petiole explants and from in-situ-collected inflorescence buds of Petasites hybridus was achieved by a simple two-step protocol. Murashige and Skoog (MS) nutrient medium was supplemented with 17.6 μm benzyladenine (BA)+0.54 μm naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) to induce shoots. After 5 weeks of culture, 40% of the petiole and 27% of the leaf explants
produced shoots compared to 76% of the inflorescence buds. Single shoots were excised and subcultured on MS medium supplemented
with various cytokinins (N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl)adenine, BA, kinetin and thidiazuron). A concentration of 8.8 μm kinetin+0.54 μm NAA performed best in terms of shoot multiplication rate, average shoot length and spontaneous root induction.
Received: 20 August 1997 / Revision received: 29 December 1997 / Accepted: 5 February 1998 相似文献
3.
SYMMETRY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BUTOMUS UMBELLATUS (BUTOMACEAE) AND LIMNOCHARIS FLAVA (LIMNOCHARITACEAE)
George J. Wilder 《American journal of botany》1974,61(4):379-394
The prostrate rhizome of Butomus umbellatus produces branch primordia of two sorts, inflorescence primordia and nonprecocious vegetative lateral buds. The inflorescence primordia form precociously by the bifurcation of the apical meristem of the rhizome, whereas the non-precocious vegetative buds are formed away from the apical meristem. The rhizome normally produces a branch in the axial of each foliage leaf. However, it is unclear whether the rhizome is a monopodial or a sympodial structure. Lateral buds are produced on the inflorescence of B. umbellatus either by the bifurcation or trifurcation of apical meristems. The inflorescence consists of monochasial units as well as units of greater complexity, and certain of the flower buds lack subtending bracts. The upright vegetative axis of Limnocharis flava has sympodial growth and produces evicted branch primordia solely by meristematic bifurcation. Only certain leaves of the axis are associated with evicted branch primordia and each such primordium gives rise to an inflorescence. The flowers of L. flava are borne in a cincinnus and, although the inflorescence is simpler than that of Butomus umbellatus, the two inflorescences appear to conform to a fundamental body plan. The ultimate bud on the inflorescence of Limnocharis flava always forms a vegetative shoot, and the inflorescence may also produce supernumerary vegetative buds. Butomus umbellatus and Limnocharis flava exhibit a high degree of mirror image symmetry. 相似文献
4.
In vitro formation and development of floral buds on tobacco stem explants: effects of kinetin and other factors 下载免费PDF全文
Stem segments were excised from plants of Wisconsin 38 tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) in three regions differing in their distance below the inflorescence. They were cultured in vitro in 8- or 16-hr days. After 8 weeks, floral and vegetative buds were counted, and extent of floral development was assessed. Kinetin at 10(-5)m inhibited formation and development of floral buds regardless of indoleacetic acid concentration. Supplied at this concentration with adequate auxin, kinetin stimulated vegetative bud formation and may have caused floral bud abortion. Indoleacetic acid (>/= 10(-6)m) inhibited vegetative and floral bud formation when supplied with low kinetin concentration (= 10(-7)m) but did not affect floral development. When supplied with high kinetin concentration (>/= 10(-6)m), it inhibited floral bud formation and stimulated vegetative bud formation. More floral buds were formed in 16-hr days than in 8-hr days. Few formed on explants other than those derived from the region nearest the inflorescence regardless of other treatment. 相似文献
5.
David S. Dobkin 《Oecologia》1984,64(2):245-254
Summary Flowering patterns of four Heliconia (Heliconiaceae) species in Trinidad, West Indies were examined for their predictability and availability to the nectarivores that rely on Heliconia floral nectar. Principal flower visitors are trapling hermit hummingbirds; inflorescences are inhabited by nectarivorous hummingbird flower mites that move between inflorescences by riding in the hummingbirds' nares.
Heliconia inflorescences flower for 40–200 days, providing long-term sources of copious nectar (30–60 l per flower), but each Heliconia flower lasts only a single day. As an inflorescence ages the interval increases between open flowers within a bract; wet-season inflorescences produce open flowers more slowly than dry-season conspecifics.Estimated daily energy expenditures for hermit hummingbirds demonstrate that slow production of short-lived open flowers plus low inflorescence density preclude territorial defense of Heliconia by the hermits. Heliconia flowering patterns are viewed as a means of (i) regulating reproductive investment by the plants through staggered flower production over long periods of time, and (ii) maintaining outcrossing by necessitating a traplining visitation pattern by its hummingbird pollinators. I suggest that Heliconia exhibit a two-tiered pollination system by using hermit hummingbirds primarily for outcrossing and using hummingbird flower mites primarily for self-pollination. 相似文献
6.
Bulbs, corms and other subterranean storage organs are commonly used as explant source material for the establishment of
geophytes in vitro. The inflorescence stalk was found to be a good alternative source of explants to overcome explant contamination
originating from underground storage organs. Inflorescence explants of Allium, Dichelostemma, Eucrosia, Gladiolus, Haemanthus, Hyacinthus, Narcissus, Nerine and Ornithogalum were used to establish cultures in vitro. The regeneration potential of the inflorescence was compared with regeneration
from bulb twin scales or from apical buds isolated from corms. Gladiolus (Iridaceae) explants isolated from the floral stem just below the expanding florets, still enclosed in the bracts, were highly
regenerative in the presence of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and kinetin. In the presence of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
and benzyl aminopurine (BA) in the medium, explants isolated from the tissue at the junction between the peduncle and the
pedicels of a young Nerine (Amaryllidaceae) inflorescence regenerated several buds. The scapes of young unemerged inflorescences taken from sprouting
bulbs of Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae), following a 15 °C storage treatment, regenerated buds in the presence of NAA, BA, elevated phosphate and
adenine sulfate in the medium. The number of buds regenerated depended on the location on the scape from which the explant
was isolated, and on the duration of the 15°C treatment. In Allium (Alliaceae), capitulum tissue between the flower pedicels regenerated buds. Explants excised from the peduncle, as well as
the pedicel-peduncle junction of Dichelostemma (Alliaceae), Ornithogalum, Hyacinthus (Hyacinthaceae) and Eucrosia (Amaryllidaceae) regenerated several buds in each type of explant. In the case of Haemanthus (Amaryllidaceae), pedicel-peduncle junction explants regenerated buds only when excised from inner whorl florets. Propagation
protocols and the potential use of expediently isolated inflorescence explants for efficient micropropagation of geophytes
are discussed.
Received: 1 September 1999 / Revision received: 13 December 1999 / Accepted: 13 December 1999 相似文献
7.
EMILE MIGINIAC 《Physiologia plantarum》1971,25(2):234-239
Influence of roots on the vegetative or floral development of cotyledonary buds of Scrofularia arguta Sol.: A possible cytokinin role. This study shows that the presence of “nonabsorbing roots” insures a vegetative development of cotyledonary buds cultured in vitro whereas buds growing without roots produce flowers early. In the same way, roots suppress floral expression of axillary meristems of the same cotyledonary buds and induce these buds to vegetative functioning. Various trophic modifications in the culture medium are ineffective on non-rooted buds as also are gibberellin As and adenine. On the contrary, several cytokinins (kinetin, benzyladenine and zeatin) exert the same influence as roots. These results suggest that roots regulate meristematic functioning through cytokinins. 相似文献
8.
A. S. Rodrigues Pereira 《Planta》1968,80(4):349-358
Summary Staminate flowers of the Acorn squash (Cucurbita pepo, cv. Table Queen) are initiated monosexually, pistillate flowers are initiated bisexually. Pistillate flower primordia are physiologically bisexual from a stage below 0.3 mm until they are 0.8 mm in width.Male and female floral buds were cultivated on White's medium, modified according to Galun et al. (1963). In excised female floral buds the relative development of stamens is better than in in-situ floral buds; the opposite relationship holds for ovary development. The smaller the bud at excision, the greater the stamen growth and the lesser the ovary growth, both in absolute and relative terms. Although smaller pistillate floral buds cultured in vitro showed a greater increase in maleness than larger ones, there was no difference in the percentage of female buds between explants of the two sizes when originating from the mixed stem region (that is, the stem region carrying male and female flowers). Addition of 3-indoleacetic acid and the anti-auxin p-chlorophenoxyisobutyric acid to standard medium in equal amounts resulted in somewhat better development of excised floral buds than addition of each of these compounds alone.The percentage of female buds among explants originating from identical nodes was not significantly influenced by 3-indoleacetic acid or p-chlorophenoxyisobutyric acid.Weizmann Memorial Fellow. The studies reported in this publication were mainly undertaken at the Weizmann Institute of Science 相似文献
9.
Elucidating the factors determining the occurrence of florivorous organisms is an essential step for comprehending arthropod–plant interactions, especially when considering florivores that use flowers/inflorescences as microhabitats. In this study, we characterize the interaction between florivorous thrips (Thysanoptera) and Palicourea rigida (Rubiaceae), a distylous hummingbird-pollinated shrub. We investigated the relative role of different factors in determining thrips occurrence in the flower and inflorescence microhabitats. Furthermore, we experimentally examined the protective role of corolla influencing thrips exploration of floral buds. Frankliniella musaeperda (Thripidae) was the only species recorded on P. rigida, feeding on floral tissue, pollen and nectar. Thrips occurrence was not related to distyly, but rather to floral stage. Open flowers presented the highest abundance of thrips, followed by senescent flowers and then buds. The experimental opening of buds translated in increased thrips occurrence, indicating that F. musaeperda manage to explore the microhabitat offered by the floral chamber, as long as there is an opening in the corolla. In inflorescences, thrips abundance was negatively related to the number of ants visiting extrafloral nectaries. We found that the marked difference between floral morphs of distylous plants is not necessarily reflected in the abundance of florivores. Thrips seek for floral cavities, preferentially those with fresh tissue, which may confer nutrient-rich food and protection. Buds also provide this; however, the enclosed petals are an effective barrier against F. musaeperda entrance. At inflorescence scale, presence of mutualistic ants in high numbers can drive away these flower-feeding insects. Despite the abundance of thrips in the flowers, there was no evidence of any functional relationship, either of pollination for flowers or of breeding for insects. We demonstrate here that in the flower/inflorescence microhabitat, structural and biotic factors play a key role in the exploitation and occupation by insect florivores. 相似文献
10.
Andrew M. Greller 《American journal of botany》1969,56(6):575-583
Extensive correlations in spirality were observed among vegetative and floral organs in Lilium tigrinum Ker. Organs involved were vegetative leaves, bracts, and bracteoles. These correlations varied in their degree of constancy depending upon the organs involved. The mature inflorescences of L. tigrinum appeared to fit the common definition of a raceme. In 67.3% of the flowers at node 3 on the raceme, the bract-bracteole spirals reversed the spiral of vegetative leaves on the stem. These reversals resembled those observed on essentially cymose inflorescences of certain members of the Caryophyllaceae. Cymose branching was found to be an invariable feature of the inflorescence of L. tigrinum when secondary flowers appear. The apparently indeterminate tips of inflorescence main axes were interpreted as exhibiting stages in progression from a basically determinate (cymose) inflorescence. It was concluded that the ancestors of L. tigrinum had well-developed cymose branching patterns in the inflorescence. Reversal of stem spirals by the bract-bracteole spirals at the apices of many inflorescences was considered to be the result of complete utilization of the inflorescence meristem. Explanations for those reversals were provided by the field theory and by the theory of the first available space. 相似文献
11.
Transition from absolute to quantitative short-day control in Nicotiana tabacum cv. Maryland Mammoth
The response in vitro of thin cell layers, excised from different stem regions of Nicotiana tabacum cv. Maryland Mammoth plants at various developmental stages, was studied under different photoperiodic treatments. The aim was to determine at which stage of plant development, and in which region of the stem, the absolute short-day requirement, indispensable for the induction of the flowering process in this genotype, becomes quantitative and whether it remains short-day. The explants were cultured on a medium suitable for flower neoformation, and were exposed for 30 days to the following treatments: continuous darkness, 8 h light/16 h dark per day, 16 h light/8 h dark per day, and continuous light. The first flowers on explants were observed from plants that were still in the vegetative state, but whose apex showed an accelerated production of axillary vegetative buds, as observed histologically. These explants were excised from the first 10 internodes below the first node with a leaf ≥ 5 cm in length (apical site), and produced flowers only under short-day treatment. When the apical dome initiated the organization of the terminal flower, the apical site explants developed flowers under both short-day and long-day treatments. At the same stage, explants from the 15th to the 20th internode below the first leaf ≥ 5 cm in length also formed flowers, but only under short-day. When the plant showed a complete inflorescence, flowers were also present on explants from the most basal stem internodes and from the inflorescence branches. At this stage, flower neoformation occurred under all treatments; however, under short-day the number of explants showing flowers not associated with vegetative buds on the same sample greatly exceeded that observed under other treatments, as did the mean number of flowers per explant (except the basal regions). In conclusion, in the post-inductive phases of the flowering process, the photoperiodic requirement of this genotype is always short-day. The superficial tissues of the stem require either absolute or quantitative short-day treatment, depending on their position on the stem and the stage of evolution of the flowering process in the terminal apex. 相似文献
12.
Summary All floral buds of Impatiens balsamina plants exposed to 4 short-day (SD) cycles and then returned to long days reverted to vegetative growth. The same happened with the upper buds of plants receiving a larger number of SDs, even as many as 90 cycles. The reversal proceeded in a basipetal order. The number of floral buds and flowers increased, and their reversion to vegetative growth was delayed with increasing numbers of SD cycles. Depending upon the stage attained by the floral bud before the transfer of the plant to noninductive photoperiods one or more inner whorls of the flower were replaced by a vegetative apex. The tip of the placenta was able to resume vegetative growth even after the formation of fertile anthers and an ovary with abortive ovules, showing that the potentiality for reversion is maintained till quite late stages in floral bud development. Continuous exposure to SD cycles is required not only for the continued production of floral buds, but also for their development to mature flowers, indicating that the floral stimulus in this plant is not self-perpetuating. 相似文献
13.
Flower formation in vitro in a quantitative short-day tobacco: interrelation between photoperiod and infructescence development 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Maria Maddalena Altamura Gabriella Pasqua Barbara Monacelli Marisa Tomassi Tiziana Archilletti Giuseppina Falasca 《Physiologia plantarum》1991,82(3):333-338
The flowering response of thin layers excised from branch internodes of Nicotiana tabacum cv. Maryland Catterton (quantitative short-day plant for induction) was studied under three photoperiodic treatments. The explants were excised from inflorescences bearing flowers only, flowers and green fruits, or from infructescences with green fruits only. The aim of the study was to investigate the post-inductive photoperiodic effects on in vitro flower bud formation in a quantitative short-day tobacco and the relation with infructescence development. Short days quantitatively enhanced the flower bud regeneration capacities of explants in all stages of development, both as number of explants induced to produce flowers and as mean number of flowers per explant. There was no significant difference in flower bud formation on explants of the first two stages, which produced much more flowers than those of the third stage. Observations in planta showed that, during the 20 days separating the second stage from the first stage, there was no significant difference in the number of floral buds and flowers present on the inflorescence; however, the branch internodes lengthened, as did the floral buds and flowers. During the 10 days leading to the third stage, the number of capsules did not change significantly, but a high rate of floral abscission occurred. The present results show that in Nicotiana tabacum cv. Maryland Catterton short day quantitatively controls not only the inductive step of the flowering process, but also affects the capacity to regenerate flower buds during the late post-inductive phases. The responsiveness to the photoperiodic signal decreases only when the plant exhibits only fruits. 相似文献
14.
Choice of flowers by foraging honey bees (Apis mellifera): possible morphological cues 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
G. E. DUFFIELD R. C. GIBSON P. M. GILHOOLY A. J. HESSE C. R. INKLEY F. S. GILBERT C. J. BARNARD 《Ecological Entomology》1993,18(3):191-197
Abstract.
- 1 Honey bees foraging for nectar on lavender (Lavandula stoechas) chose inflorescences with more of their flowers open. The number of open flowers predicted whether an inflorescence was visited by bees, inspected but rejected, or ignored. Inflorescences chosen arbitrarily by observers had numbers of open flowers intermediate between those of visited and ignored inflorescences.
- 2 Differences in morphological characters between types of inflorescence correlated with nectar volume and sugar weight per flower so that visited inflorescences had a disproportionately greater volume of nectar and weight of sugar per flower and greater variance in nectar volume.
- 3 Although there were significant associations between nectar content and the morphological characters of inflorescences, discriminant function analysis revealed discrimination on the basis of morphology rather than nectar content.
- 4 Visited inflorescences tended to have smaller than average flowers but bees tended to probe the largest flowers on visited inflorescences.
- 5 Choice of flowers within inflorescences is explicable in terms of the relationship between flower size and nectar content.
15.
Hormonal control of flower induction and inflorescence development in vitro was investigated in photoperiodically day-neutral calla lily (Zantedeschia spp., colored cultivars). The effects of gibberellins (GAs, 5.8–2900 M) and the cytokinin benzyl adenine (BA, 0.4–13.3 M) on inflorescence development were studied in plantlets regenerated in tissue culture. Plantlets were dipped in GA and BA solutions prior to replanting in new media. GA was mandatory for the shift from the vegetative to the reproductive stage. GA3, GA1 and GA4 had the same florigenic effect. Inflorescence development in the apical bud was observed after 30–50 days in GA-treated plantlets grown in vitro and resembled the pattern occurring under natural conditions. The transition from the vegetative to the reproductive phase was characterized by a swollen, dome-shaped apex that transformed into a smooth elongated apex surrounded by the spathe primordium, at the tip of the elongating peduncle primordium. Floret primordia developed in inflorescences at a more advanced stage. The female florets located at the base of the primordial spadix, could be clearly distinguished from male florets located above them. BA did not have an effect on flower induction but, in the presence of GA, BA at concentrations up to 4.4 M enhanced inflorescence differentiation. The results indicate that inflorescence development in Zantedeschia plantlets in tissue culture can serve as a potential model to study the role of GAs and other factors in the flowering process of day-neutral plants that do not require external signals for flower induction. 相似文献
16.
Mark J. McKone Rebecca Ostertag Jason T. Rauscher David A. Heiser F. Leland Russell 《Oecologia》1995,101(1):68-74
Darwin pointed out that plants with vertical inflorescences are likely to be outcrossed if the inflorescence is acropetalous (flowers from the bottom up), the flowers are protandrous (pollen is dispersed before stigmas are receptive), and pollinators move upward on the inflorescence. This syndrome is common in species pollinated by bees and flies, and very few exceptions are known. We investigated flowering phenology and pollinator behavior in Besseya bullii (Scrophulariaceae) and found that it did not fit Darwin's syndrome. The vertical inflorescence was acropetalous but the flowers were distinctly protogynous, so flowers with newly receptive stigmas appeared on the inflorescence above those with dehiscing anthers. A number of small insects visited B. bullii; bees in the family Halictidae (Augochlorella striata and Dialictus spp.) were most common. When insects moved between gender phases within inflorescences, they moved up more often than down (61% versus 39% of observations, respectively) but this difference was only marginally significant. Most visits were to male-phase flowers only, and this preference was more pronounced for pollen-foraging insects than for nectar-foraging insects. B. bullii was self-compatible, so its flowering characteristics potentially could result in considerable self-pollination. However, an average of 38% of the lowermost flowers opened before any pollen was available on the same inflorescence; these solo females had a high probability of outcrossing (though fruit set was relatively low in the bottom portion of the inflorescence). Upper flowers may also be outcrossed because downward insect movement was not uncommon. Therefore protogyny in B. bullii may not necessarily lead to more selfing than would protandry. 相似文献
17.
Visitation rate of pollinators and nectar robbers to the flowers and inflorescences of Tabebuia aurea (Bignoniaceae): effects of floral display size and habitat fragmentation 下载免费PDF全文
Jorge A. Lobo Davi de Lacerda Ramos Aline Cabral Braga 《Botanical journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London》2016,181(4):667-681
Large floral displays favour pollinator attraction and the import and export of pollen. However, large floral displays also have negative effects, such as increased geitonogamy, pollen discounting and nectar/pollen robber attraction. The size of the floral display can be measured at different scales (e.g. the flower, inflorescence or entire plant) and variations in one of these scales may affect the behaviour of flower visitors in different ways. Moreover, the fragmentation of natural forests may affect flower visitation rates and flower visitor behaviour. In the present study, video recordings of the inflorescences of a tree species (Tabebuia aurea) from the tropical savannah of central Brazil were used to examine the effect of floral display size at the inflorescence and tree scales on the visitation rate of pollinators and nectar robbers to the inflorescence, the number of flowers approached per visit, the number of visits per flower of potential pollinators and nectar robbers, and the interaction of these variables with the degree of landscape disturbance. Nectar production was quantified with respect to flower age. Although large bees are responsible for most of the pollination, a great diversity of flower insects visit the inflorescences of T. aurea. Other bee and hummingbird species are highly active nectar robbers. Increases in inflorescence size increase the visitation rate of pollinators to inflorescences, whereas increases in the number of inflorescences on the tree decrease visitation rates to inflorescences and flowers. This effect has been strongly correlated with urban environments in which trees with the largest floral displays are observed. Pollinating bees (and nectar robbers) visit few flowers per inflorescence and concentrate visits to a fraction of available flowers, generating an overdispersed distribution of the number of visits per inflorescence and per flower. This behaviour reflects preferential visits to young flowers (including flower buds) with a greater nectar supply. 相似文献
18.
High temperature arrest of inflorescence development in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica L.) 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
High temperature causes unevenly-sized flower buds on broccoli
inflorescences. This deformity limits production of broccoli to areas where
summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 C. The
stage of development sensitive to heat was determined by exposing plants of
'Galaxy' broccoli at varying developmental states to 35 C day temperature for 1 week, and subsequently
analysing the head structure. During the high temperature exposure, the
development of certain flower buds was arrested. There was no corresponding
cessation of bud initiation at the apex. No injury resulted if heat was
applied before the reproductive induction, or was their injury to
differentiated flower buds. Meristems were affected only if heat was
applied during inflorescence production or the floral initiation process.
Shorter heat exposures produced little injury, and longer exposures were
lethal. The plant's development at this sensitive period still appeared
vegetative externally, but the youngest leaves had just begun to
reorientate as a consequence of the reduced stem elongation rate. The
meristem was less than 1 mm wide, and floral primordia were just forming,
still subtended by leaf primordia. The injury was fully expressed by the
time the head was first exposed (approximately 5-10 mm wide), though it
became more apparent as the head matured. The buds that were delayed in
development by the high temperature developed into normal
flowers.Key words: Brassica oleracea , broccoli,
flowering, heat injury, developmental arrest
相似文献
19.
Hans Dreisig 《Oecologia》1985,67(3):360-366
Summary The bee hawkmoth, Hemaris fuciformis, tended to fly in the same direction between successive visits to inflorescences of Viscaria vulgaris. Upon leaving an inflorescence it did not fly to the first inflorescence in its path, but to the second. At inflorescences, the number of animals that started probing decreased from the bottom to the top. These movement patterns probably serve to reduce the risk of revisiting flowers. The movements of the moths at inflorescences with 2 flowers per tier were investigated and related to the nectar distribution. The nectar is distributed according to a bonanza-blank pattern, flowers being either empty or full, probably because previous visitors have emptied some, but not all, flowers. It is shown that the two flowers of a tier more often than random belong to the category: blank-bonanza. Thus, if a blank is found, the animal should move sideways to the second flower at the same tier in order to find a bonanza. The flowers of the inflorescences tend to be arranged in vertical rows, and it is shown that two flowers, one above the other, more often than random belong to the two categories: blank-blank or bonanza-bonanza. Thus, if a bonanza is found, the animal should move up to the flower above, in order to find another bonanza. Rules of movement at inflorescences and a rule of departure are proposed based on the probability distribution of the nectar. The observed movements agree quite well with the predicted ones. 相似文献
20.
Is Floral Longevity Influenced by Reproductive Costs and Pollination Success in Cohniella ascendens (Orchidaceae)? 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1