Estimating Fine Root Turnover in Tropical Forests along an Elevational Transect using Minirhizotrons

Growth and death of fine roots represent an important carbon sink in forests. Our understanding of the patterns of fine root turnover is limited, in particular in tropical forests, despite its acknowledged importance in the global carbon cycle. We used the minirhizotron technique for studying the changes in fine root longevity and turnover along a 2000-m-elevational transect in the tropical mountain forests of South Ecuador. Fine root growth and loss rates were monitored during a 5-mo period at intervals of four weeks with each 10 minirhizotron tubes in three stands at 1050, 1890, and 3060 m asl. Average root loss rate decreased from 1.07 to 0.72 g/g/yr from 1050 to 1890 m, indicating an increase in mean root longevity with increasing elevation. However average root loss rate increased again toward the uppermost stand at 3060 m (1.30 g/g/yr). Thus, root longevity increased from lower montane to mid-montane elevation as would be expected from an effect of low temperature on root turnover, but it decreased further upslope despite colder temperatures. We suggest that adverse soil conditions may reduce root longevity at high elevations in South Ecuador, and are thus additional factors besides temperature that control root dynamics in tropical mountain forests.     

Measuring Fine Root Turnover in Forest Ecosystems

Development of direct and indirect methods for measuring root turnover and the status of knowledge on fine root turnover in forest ecosystems are discussed. While soil and ingrowth cores give estimates of standing root biomass and relative growth, respectively, minirhizotrons provide estimates of median root longevity (turnover time) i.e., the time by which 50% of the roots are dead. Advanced minirhizotron and carbon tracer studies combined with demographic statistical methods and new models hold the promise of improving our fundamental understanding of the factors controlling root turnover. Using minirhizotron data, fine root turnover (y⁻¹) can be estimated in two ways: as the ratio of annual root length production to average live root length observed and as the inverse of median root longevity. Fine root production and mortality can be estimated by combining data from minirhizotrons and soil cores, provided that these data are based on roots of the same diameter class (e.g., < 1 mm in diameter) and changes in the same time steps. Fluxes of carbon and nutrients via fine root mortality can then be estimated by multiplying the amount of carbon and nutrients in fine root biomass by fine root turnover. It is suggested that the minirhizotron method is suitable for estimating median fine root longevity. In comparison to the minirhizotron method, the radio carbon technique favor larger fine roots that are less dynamics. We need to reconcile and improve both methods to develop a more complete understanding of root turnover.     

细根分解研究及其存在的问题

细根分解是陆地生态系统C和养分循环的重要环节.主要包括淋溶和破碎等物理过程和以生物作用为主的化学过程.这些过程受复杂的细根化学成分及外部土壤因子的综合控制,如细根本身养分含量、木质素和纤维素含量、土壤温度、水分、养分的有效性以及土壤动物、真菌和细菌等.但是,细根分解发生在不能直接观测的地下部分,人为改变细根分解的自然环境是研究过程中存在的主要问题.埋袋法虽然应用最为普遍,但是它严重地干扰了细根分解环境,导致低估分解速率.最近提出的原状土芯法(intact-core)克服了埋袋法的主要缺陷,是目前细根分解研究中最接近自然分解过程的研究方法,但也存在一些问题.因此,如何设计有效且能够真实的反映细根自然分解过程的试验方法是今后该领域研究最重要和最具挑战性的课题.     

细根分解研究及其存在的问题

细根分解是陆地生态系统C和养分循环的重要环节。主要包括淋溶和破碎等物理过程和以生物作用为主的化学过程。这些过程受复杂的细根化学成分及外部土壤因子的综合控制,如细根本身养分含量、木质素和纤维素含量、土壤温度、水分、养分的有效性以及土壤动物、真菌和细菌等。但是,细根分解发生在不能直接观测的地下部分,人为改变细根分解的自然环境是研究过程中存在的主要问题。埋袋法虽然应用最为普遍,但是它严重地干扰了细根分解环境,导致低估分解速率。最近提出的原状土芯法(intact-core)克服了埋袋法的主要缺陷,是目前细根分解研究中最接近自然分解过程的研究方法,但也存在一些问题。因此,如何设计有效且能够真实的反映细根自然分解过程的试验方法是今后该领域研究最重要和最具挑战性的课题。     

Nutrient Movement in Litter Fall and Precipitation Components for Central Himalayan Forests

The annual total litter fall in six Central Himalayan forestsranged from 2.1 to 3.8 t C ha^–1, of which 54 to 82 percent was leaf litter, 9–20 per cent wood litter and 6–14per cent other litter. In all forests the order of relativeabundance of nutrients (kg ha^-1 year^-1) in litter fall was Ca(50.8–91.6) > N (47.7–72.2) > K (22.8–37.1)> P (4.1–6.4). Leaf litter accounted for 63–95per cent of the total nutrients returned through litter fall. In these forests throughfall ranged from 71.3 to 81.4 per cent,stemflow from 0.50 to 2.16 per cent and canopy interceptionfrom 17.7 to 28.2 per cent of the gross rainfall. In the incidentrainfall the concentration and annual input of Ca was the greatestand of P the least. Canopy precipitation was richer in all nutrientscompared to incident rainfall. Net gain of nutrients from thecanopy ranged from 0.16 kg ha^-1 year^-1, for P, to 17.77 kg ha^-1year^-1 for K. Leaching was greatest for K and least for N. Ofthe total quantity of nutrients returned to the soil, 11 to46 per cent was accounted for by precipitation components. Thusprecipitation inputs play a significant role in nutrient cyclingof these forests. Himalaya, forest, litter fall, precipitation components, nutrients     

森林生态系统细根周转规律及影响因素

根系周转是陆地生态系统碳循环的关键过程, 对研究土壤碳库变化及全球气候变化均具有重要意义。然而由于根系周转率的测量计算方法较多, 不同方法得出的结果差异较大, 且目前对全球区域尺度上森林生态系统根系周转的研究还不够充分, 使得全球森林生态系统根系周转变化规律仍不清楚。该研究通过收集文献数据并统一周转率计算方法, 对全球5种森林类型的细根周转空间格局进行整合, 同时结合土壤理化性质和气候数据, 得出影响森林生态系统细根周转的因子。结果表明, 不同森林类型细根周转率存在显著差异, 且随着纬度的升高逐渐降低; 森林生态系统细根周转率与年平均温度和年平均降水量呈正相关; 森林生态系统细根周转率与土壤有机碳含量呈正相关但与土壤pH值呈负相关。该研究为揭示森林生态系统细根周转规律及机制提供了科学依据。     

Central Amazon Floodplain Forests: Root Adaptations to Prolonged Flooding

The floodplains of Central Amazonia represent a complex system of inundated river valleys and shallow lakes along the Solimões–Amazonas river, which is subjected to an annual flood-pulse lasting up to 10 months. Such flooding reaching an amplitude of about ten meters causes dramatic changes in the bioavailability of nutrients and oxygen levels and poses extreme constraints for plant survival and reproductivity. Tree species of inundation forests in Central Amazonia had to evolve adaptive mechanisms to both desiccation of soils and partial or full submergence. To adapt to flooded conditions, some trees overcome the flood period by dormancy accompanied by defoliation and formation of annual rings in the wood. Other species maintain metabolism and retain the foliage during the flooding, representing another adaptive mechanism to low oxygen availability. This investigation focused on the root physiology and morphology of six species typical of white-water inundation areas (várzea) led to a preliminary classification of adaptive strategies of trees inhabiting forest communities in floodplains of the Amazon basin.     

Spatial Distribution Patterns and Associations of Woody Plant Species in the Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forests in Central Vietnam

Biology Bulletin - The present study was conducted to elucidate the underlying processes that have maintained and promoted the coexistence of tropical forest tree species. Three 1-ha study plots...     

Fine Root Growth Increases in Response to Nitrogen Addition in Phosphorus-limited Northern Hardwood Forests

Ecosystems - Resource allocation theory posits that increased soil nutrient availability results in decreased plant investment in nutrient acquisition. We evaluated this theory by quantifying fine...     

缙云山常绿阔叶林的排序

排序概念由苏联学者拉孟斯基(1930)第一次提出并首先用环境梯度为坐标去排列植物群落。然而,这一方法在60年代电子计算技术的普遍应用和连续性学派(个体学派)兴旺发达起来以后,才迅速发展起来。排序是植物群落样本的一种空间排列,是揭示其空间连续变化的有效技术。至今方法很多,但一般分为两类,一类是用环境因子进行排列,称为直接排序,或称直接梯度分析,或者就叫梯度分析。另一类是用植物群落本身的特征(属性)来排序,称为间接排序,或间接     

大别山区霍山、金寨两县的常绿植物与常绿阔叶林

本文根据大别山区霍山和金寨两县植物考察所积累的标本,提出一个包含近70种的常绿植物名录,其中有6种为华东或安徽新记录,9种为该区的新记录;这些植物中,约3／4—4／5均以该地为分布的北界。文中再次报道了以苦槠为优势的常绿阔叶林类型,证明该地区低海拔地带有耐寒性常绿阔叶林的分布。最后扼要讨论了华东区常绿植物和常绿阔叶林北部边缘的分布与当地气候条件的关系,除温度的主导作用外,还受水湿条件的制约,水湿条件起到补偿温度的作用。     

Indirect Methods Produce Higher Estimates of Fine Root Production and Turnover Rates than Direct Methods

The production and turnover of fine roots play substantial roles in the biogeochemical cycles of terrestrial ecosystems. However, the disparity among the estimates of both production and turnover, particularly due to technical limitations, has been debated for several decades. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis to compare published estimates of fine root production and turnover rates derived from different methods at the same sites and at the same sampling time. On average, the estimates of fine root production and turnover rates were 87% and 124% higher, respectively, by indirect methods than by direct methods. The substantially higher fine root production and turnover estimated by indirect methods, on which most global carbon models are based, indicate the necessity of re-assessing the global carbon model predictions for atmospheric carbon sequestration in soils as a result of the production and turnover of fine roots.     

Community Dynamics of Seed Rain in Mixed Evergreen Broad-leaved and Deciduous Forests in a Subtropical Mountain of Central China

Seed dispersal is a key process within community dynamics.The spatial and temporal variations of seed dispersal andthe interspecific differences are crucial for understanding species coexistence and community dynamics.This might alsohold for the mixed evergreen broadleaved and deciduous forests in the mountains of subtropical China,but until now littleexisting knowledge is available for this question.In 2001,we chose to monitor the seed rain process of our mixed evergreenbroad-leaved and deciduous forest communities in Mount Dalaoling National Forest Park,Yichang,Hubei Province,China.The preliminary analyses show obvious variations in seed rain density,species compositions and timing of seed rain amongfour communities.The average seed rain densities of the four communities are 2.43±5.15,54.13±182.75,10.05±19.30and 24.91±58.86 inds./m~2,respectively;about one tenth the values in other studies in subtropical forests of China.In eachcommunity,the seed production is dominated by a limited number of species,and the contributions from the others aregenerally minor.Fecundity of evergreen broadleaved tree species is weaker than deciduous species.The seed rain of fourcommunities begins earlier than September,and stops before December,peaking from early September to late October.The beginning date,ending date and peak times of seed rain are extensively varied among the species,indicating differenttypes of dispersal strategies.According to the existing data,the timing of seed rain is not determined by the climateconditions in the same period,while the density of seed rain may be affected by the disturbances of weather variations ata finer temporal resolution.     

Community Dynamics of Seed Rain in Mixed Evergreen Broad-leaved and Deciduous Forests in a Subtropical Mountain of Central China

Seed dispersal is a key process within community dynamics. The spatial and temporal variations of seed dispersal and the interspecific differences are crucial for understanding species coexistence and community dynamics. This might also hold for the mixed evergreen broadleaved and deciduous forests in the mountains of subtropical China, but until now little existing knowledge is available for this question. In 2001, we chose to monitor the seed rain process of our mixed evergreen broad-leaved and deciduous forest communities in Mount Dalaoling National Forest Park, Yichang, Hubei Province, China. The preliminary analyses show obvious variations in seed rain density, species compositions and timing of seed rain among four communities. The average seed rain densities of the four communities are 2.43 ± 5.15, 54.13 ±182.75, 10.05 ±19.30 and 24.91 ± 58.86 inds/m^2, respectively; about one tenth the values in other studies in subtropical forests of China. in each community, the seed production is dominated by a limited number of species, and the contributions from the others are generally minor. Fecundity of evergreen broadleaved tree species is weaker than deciduous species. The seed rain of four communities begins earlier than September, and stops before December, peaking from early September to late October. The beginning date, ending date and peak times of seed rain are extensively varied among the species, indicating different types of dispersal strategies. According to the existing data, the timing of seed rain is not determined by the climate conditions in the same period, while the density of seed rain may be affected by the disturbances of weather variations at a finer temporal resolution.     

泉州常绿阔叶林的特征与分布

泉州的常绿阔叶林包括南亚热带雨林和南亚热带山地照叶林。通过对这两种植被类型的区分成分、生活型、叶的性质以及群落的结构与分布的分析,说明海拔450m以下具有较明显的以厚壳桂、红楠等为优势种的南亚热带雨林的特征和景观;海拔450～900m主要以米槠等拷类为优势种的群落,但仍有南亚热带雨林的某些特征;海拔900～1400m以甜槠为主要建群种的群落,属于中亚热带照叶林的群落特征。     

广西常绿阔叶林的极点排序

极点排序法的最大特点是人为地选择座标轴。根据我们对四种不同选轴方法的对比,发现在排序结果上没有大的区别。这表明在选择端点样地时,只要剔除那些最无关的极端样地后,根据植被变异度来确定端点还是可行的。无论用哪一种选轴方法,为了避免端点样地与其它样地过于无关,凡是与其它样地相异性系数出现100者均不能选为端点样地。四种选轴方法的排序结果与聚类分析结果基本是相一致的,这说明极点排序法仍可作为研究样地相互关系以及与环境关系的一种辅助方法,对群落分类研究是有帮助的。     

Biomass, Productivity and Energetics in Himalayan Alder Plantations

Biomass, net primary production and energy fixation in an agesequence of Himalayan alder (Alnus nepalensis D. Don) plantationswere estimated in the Kalimpong forest division of the easternHimalayas. Biomass in the plantations ranged from 106 t ha^–1(7-year stand) to 606 t ha^–1 (56-year stand) demonstratingthe potential of the alder for accumulating large biomass. Netprimary production and net energy fixation rates of the plantationswere reduced by nearly half in the 7-year stand (25 t ha^–1year^–1; 421 x 10⁶ kJ ha^–1 year^–1) comparedwith the 56-year stand (13 t ha^–1 year^–1; 215 x10⁶ kJ ha^–1 year^–1). Compartmental models of energystorage and flow rates were developed for the 7-year and 56-yearstands. The production efficiency, energy conversion efficiencyand energy efficiency in N₂ fixation have inverse relationshipswith plantation age. These efficiencies, when treated with eachother, showed significant exponential functions. Alnus nepalensis D. Don, Himalayan alder, plantation age, biomass, net primary production, energy flow, efficiencies     

Size and Structure of Fine Root Systems in Old-growth and Secondary Tropical Montane Forests (Costa Rica)

The fine root systems of three tropical montane forests differing in age and history were investigated in the Cordillera Talamanca, Costa Rica. We analyzed abundance, vertical distribution, and morphology of fine roots in an early successional forest (10–15 years old, ESF), a mid‐successional forest (40 years old, MSP), and a nearby undisturbed old‐growth forest (OGF), and related the root data to soil morphological and chemical parameters. The OGF stand contained a 19 cm deep organic layer on the forest floor (i.e., 530 mol C/m²), which was two and five times thicker than that of the MSF (10 cm) and ESF stands (4 cm), respectively. There was a corresponding decrease in fine root biomass in this horizon from 1128 g dry matter/m² in the old‐growth forest to 337 (MSF) and 31 g/m² (ESF) in the secondary forests, although the stands had similar leaf areas. The organic layer was a preferred substrate for fine root growth in the old‐growth forest as indicated by more than four times higher fine root densities (root mass per soil volume) than in the mineral topsoil (0–10 cm); in the two secondary forests, root densities in the organic layer were equal to or lower than in the mineral soil. Specific fine root surface areas and specific root tip abundance (tips per unit root dry mass) were significantly greater in the roots of the ESF than the MSF and OGF stands. Most roots of the ESF trees (8 abundant species) were infected by VA mycorrhizal fungi; ectomycorrhizal species (Quercus copeyemis and Q. costaricensis) were dominant in the MSF and OGF stands. Replacement of tropical montane oak forest by secondary forest in Costa Rica has resulted in (1) a large reduction of tree fine root biomass; (2) a substantial decrease in depth of the organic layer (and thus in preferred rooting space); and (3) a great loss of soil carbon and nutrients. Whether old–growth Quercus forests maintain a very high fine root biomass because their ectomycorrhizal rootlets are less effective in nutrient absorption than those of VA mycorrhizal secondary forests, or if their nutrient demand is much higher than that of secondary forests (despite a similar leaf area and leaf mass production), remains unclear.     

Effects of Disturbance on Fine Root Dynamics in the Boreal Forests of Northern Ontario, Canada

Wildfire and clearcutting are two main disturbances in North American forests, but whether root systems may respond differently to such disturbances is unknown. Here, we studied how the dynamics of fine roots (<2 mm in diameter) varied with stand origins in a boreal forest in northern Ontario, Canada. Fine root biomass increased with stand age, but did not differ between stands originating from fire and clearcutting. By contrast, fine root production, mortality and turnover rates were lower in 3- and 11-year-old clearcut-origin than fire-origin stands, but did not differ in 29-year-old stands of different stand origins. The lower rates of production, mortality, and turnover rates in 3- and 11-year-old clearcut-origin than fire-origin stands are attributable to a lower density of shrubs and herbs and larger nutrient pools after clearcutting than fire. The similarities among 29-year-old stands indicate that the effects of stand origin on fine root processes tend to converge at this time scale. Our results illustrate that time scale is critical for assessing ecosystem responses to disturbances.