生理病理状态下线粒体合成ATP动态调控机制

线粒体是细胞的代谢中心之一,不仅产生大量的ATP为细胞提供能量,还参与多种生物分子（例如核酸、氨基酸、胆固醇和脂肪酸）合成及代谢废物的处理。ATP是细胞重要的“能源货币”,是能量载体和信号分子,参与调节细胞的各种生命活动。动物与人在激烈运动时,ATP消耗速率增加数十倍,但细胞内的ATP仍维持在“设定点”水平,不出现降低。因此,传统生理学观点认为,动物细胞内ATP水平保持恒定。但新的研究结果表明,生物细胞内ATP水平存在波动。生理条件下,增加能量物资（糖、脂和氨基酸等）和氧供,促进线粒体ATP合成,可使细胞内ATP水平出现一过性升高。新的研究证明,在肥胖情况下,由于能量物质的过多供应,细胞内ATP水平出现持续性升高,构成代谢紊乱的源头信号。线粒体ATP合成受多种因素影响,如氧化应激、钙超载、缺氧、线粒体膜通透性增加和线粒体DNA突变等。这些因素与疾病条件下细胞内ATP水平持续降低相关,常见的疾病包括阿尔茨海默症、帕金森疾病、精神分裂症、肿瘤、心衰、全身炎症反应综合征等。本综述简要概述线粒体调节细胞内ATP水平的研究进展,重点讨论造成ATP波动的因素、机制及病理生理学意义。     

生理病理状态下线粒体合成ATP的动态调控机制

线粒体是细胞的代谢中心之一,不仅产生大量的ATP为细胞提供能量,还参与多种生物分子(例如核酸、氨基酸、胆固醇和脂肪酸)合成及代谢废物的处理。ATP是细胞重要的"能源货币",是能量载体和信号分子,参与调节细胞的各种生命活动。动物与人在激烈运动时,ATP消耗速率增加数十倍,但细胞内的ATP仍维持在"设定点"水平,不出现降低。因此,传统生理学观点认为,动物细胞内ATP水平保持恒定。但新的研究结果表明,生物细胞内ATP水平存在波动。生理条件下,增加能量物资(糖、脂和氨基酸等)和氧供,促进线粒体ATP合成,可使细胞内ATP水平出现一过性升高。新的研究证明,在肥胖情况下,由于能量物质的过多供应,细胞内ATP水平出现持续性升高,构成代谢紊乱的源头信号。线粒体ATP合成受多种因素影响,如氧化应激、钙超载、缺氧、线粒体膜通透性增加和线粒体DNA突变等。这些因素与疾病条件下细胞内ATP水平持续降低相关,常见的疾病包括阿尔茨海默症、帕金森疾病、精神分裂症、肿瘤、心衰、全身炎症反应综合征等。本综述简要概述线粒体调节细胞内ATP水平的研究进展,重点讨论造成ATP波动的因素、机制及病理生理学意义。     

细胞内ATP水平调节机制在肥胖病理生理中的作用

ATP是细胞的重要能源。传统观点认为细胞内ATP水平相对恒定,不会出现持续升高。而新的研究提示:在能量过剩状态下,ATP水平在多种组织中持续升高,这种升高与能量过剩引起的代谢紊乱密切相关,但其升高机制尚不清楚。本文通过回顾本研究组前期实验结果和文献,论述调节细胞内ATP水平的多种因素,其中涉及超氧离子、线粒体炫、抗氧化剂、抗凋亡蛋白(Bcl-xL)、AMP活化的蛋白激酶以及二甲双胍等,重点讨论这些因素改变ATP设定点的作用及其潜在机制,评估它们在细胞内ATP水平升高或降低中扮演的角色。本文以能量过剩的分子机制为中心,探讨细胞内ATP水平升高导致胰岛素抵抗的分子机制,同时阐明新的实验结果与ATP传统观点之间发生矛盾的可能原因。作者认为在肥胖条件下,ATP水平升高是细胞能量过剩的重要信号,该信号通过激活反馈通路抑制线粒体功能,造成糖脂代谢紊乱。     

mTOR信号通路调节细胞能量代谢的机制

细胞正常代谢过程需要持续的能量供给,而线粒体是细胞内氧化磷酸化和合成ATP的主要场所.m TOR作为细胞营养感应和能量调节因子,调控细胞的新陈代谢以及细胞周期进程和细胞生长.本文综述了m TOR对细胞线粒体功能的调控机制,m TOR与AMPK在细胞内交互调控能量平衡以及m TOR整合氨基酸和能量感应通路,以期为营养学或药理学中对癌症以及肥胖和糖尿病等代谢性疾病的干预和治疗提供指导.     

AMPK对线粒体功能的调节

5’单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶（AMP—activated protein kinase,AMPK）是细胞的能量感受器,调节细胞能量代谢,在正常细胞和癌细胞中均发挥重要的生物功能,它的激活有助于纠正代谢紊乱,使细胞代谢趋向生理平衡。在细胞应急反应中,细胞感受到能量危机,ATP浓度下降,AMP浓度上升,细胞内AMP／ATP比例上升,AMPK被激活：而在病理状态下,如代谢综合征、肿瘤等,常伴随能量代谢紊乱和AMPK激活抑制,因此,AMPK被视为治疗代谢性疾病与肿瘤的潜在作用靶点。然而,AMPK对能量代谢的调节与线粒体的功能密不可分,线粒体作为细胞的能量工厂,在健康与疾病中也发挥着重要的作用。越来越多的研究表明,线粒体能影响AMPK的活性,同时AMPK也通过多方面对线粒体进行调节,线粒体相关疾病与AMPK的调节有着密切的关系。该文主要针对AMPK是如何对线粒体的合成、线粒体自噬、内源性凋亡及线粒体相关疾病等方面进行综述。     

线粒体ATP合成酶抑制因子1在细胞能量代谢中的调节作用

ATP除了为细胞提供能量外,还发挥重要的信号作用。因此,细胞内ATP水平的调节机制引起了越来越多的关注。ATP合成酶抑制因子(ATPase inhibitory factor 1,ATPIF1,简称IF1)是线粒体基质中的一个蛋白,其与呼吸链中的F_1Fo-ATP合酶结合,调控后者合成和水解ATP的活性。该分子在肿瘤研究方面已有综述,但是在糖脂代谢领域还缺乏相关综述。该综述从能量代谢角度出发,阐明IF1分子在调节细胞ATP水平中的作用。IF1蛋白半衰期较短,其表达呈现组织特异性,活性受基因表达和蛋白修饰的双重调节。IF1活性在其质子化后或过表达条件下升高,使线粒体ATP合成减少,引起细胞能量代谢重新编程,糖酵解合成ATP增多,并且线粒体产生活性氧增加。这些作用可解释IF1促进癌细胞生长和提高细胞炎症反应的作用。相反,IF1活性在蛋白磷酸化后或基因敲除条件下降低,由此介导的代谢编程提高细胞对恶劣环境的适应能力,提高细胞的生存力,增加局部组织的抗炎能力。总之,IF1的这些作用为探索细胞内ATP水平调节机制和细胞能量代谢稳态机制提供了重要的指导意义。     

导言

线粒体是细胞内具有双层膜结构和独立基因组DNA的重要细胞器,在细胞生命活动中发挥着至关重要的作用。一方面它们是真核细胞的主要能量工厂,通过有氧代谢产生ATP,为细胞生命活动提供能量;另一方面,线粒体是细胞内活性氧产生中心,同时也是细胞内主要钙库之一,调节细胞内钙信号和细胞生长活动。更为重要的是,线粒体还是细胞凋亡和衰老的调控中心。在细胞凋亡过程中,线粒体释放促凋亡因子（如细胞色素C）,对细胞内凋亡信号进行整合和放大。不言而喻,线粒体在细胞生长、衰老和凋亡等生理、病理过程中扮演着重要的角色。     

洋葱花粉发育过程中ATP酶的分布特征(简报)

在真核细胞中,除了线粒体和叶绿体ATPase的功能是合成ATP外,其余部位ATPase是水解ATP以获取生物能量的代谢酶,在生物体细胞内广泛存在。探索ATPase在细胞中的分布状态是研究细胞生理状态的一种重要手段。ATPase在细胞中的多少可反映出细胞当时的生活状态,这一特征已被初步用于探索小麦和水稻雄性不育的细胞生物学研究中,希望通过比较可育花药和不育花药中ATPase的分布差异寻找雄性不育的机理,发现     

mTORC1通路中氨基酸信号转导相关机制研究进展

雷帕霉素靶点蛋白（target of rapamycin,TOR）作为细胞内重要的生长和代谢调节中枢,主要通过形成两种复合物TORC1与TORC2发挥其功能。其中TORC1接收广泛的细胞内信号,如氨基酸水平、生长因子、能量以及缺氧状态等,通过调控蛋白质合成来促进细胞的增殖与生长。在这些信号当中,氨基酸不仅能够激活TORC1通路,还同时作为其他信号激活TORC1的必需条件。目前,对于生长因子和能量水平激活TORC1过程的分子机制已有较深入的认识,而对于氨基酸信号如何转导至TORC1的分子机制直到近年来才有了新的突破。该文通过梳理已发表的哺乳动物细胞中氨基酸信号调控mTORC1分子机制的相关实验结论,对该领域的研究方向进行了总结和展望。     

化学所成功实现分子马达在蛋白微胶囊表面的组装

在科技部、国家自然科学基金委和中国科学院的支持下,胶体、界面与化学热力学院重点实验室的研究人员在旋转分子马达的分子仿生组装方面取得新进展,研究工作发表在近期出版的Adv Mater（2008,20：601．5）上。细胞生长代谢的整个过程需要能量,绝大多数情况下能量由ATP的高能键水解而获得,而ATP又是通过ATP合酶合成所得到。ATP合酶是线粒体、叶绿体和细菌中能量转化的核心酶,在跨膜质子动力势的推动下催化合成ATP。     

Role of Glucose Metabolism and ATP in Maintaining PINK1 Levels during Parkin-mediated Mitochondrial Damage Responses

Mutations in several genes, including PINK1 and Parkin, are known to cause autosomal recessive cases of Parkinson disease in humans. These genes operate in the same pathway and play a crucial role in mitochondrial dynamics and maintenance. PINK1 is required to recruit Parkin to mitochondria and initiate mitophagy upon mitochondrial depolarization. In this study, we show that PINK1-dependent Parkin mitochondrial recruitment in response to global mitochondrial damage by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazine (CCCP) requires active glucose metabolism. Parkin accumulation on mitochondria and subsequent Parkin-dependent mitophagy is abrogated in glucose-free medium or in the presence of 2-deoxy-d-glucose upon CCCP treatment. The defects in Parkin recruitment correlate with intracellular ATP levels and can be attributed to suppression of PINK1 up-regulation in response to mitochondria depolarization. Low levels of ATP appear to prevent PINK1 translation instead of affecting PINK1 mRNA expression or reducing its stability. Consistent with a requirement of ATP for elevated PINK1 levels and Parkin mitochondrial recruitment, local or individual mitochondrial damage via photoirradiation does not affect Parkin recruitment to damaged mitochondria as long as a pool of functional mitochondria is present in the photoirradiated cells even in glucose-free or 2-deoxy-d-glucose-treated conditions. Thus, our data identify ATP as a key regulator for Parkin mitochondrial translocation and sustaining elevated PINK1 levels during mitophagy. PINK1 functions as an AND gate and a metabolic sensor coupling biogenetics of cells and stress signals to mitochondria dynamics.     

An ADP/ATP-specific mitochondrial carrier protein in the microsporidian Antonospora locustae

The mitochondrion is one of the defining characteristics of eukaryotic cells, and to date, no eukaryotic lineage has been shown to have lost mitochondria entirely. In certain anaerobic or microaerophilic lineages, however, the mitochondrion has become severely reduced that it lacks a genome and no longer synthesizes ATP. One example of such a reduced organelle, called the mitosome, is found in microsporidian parasites. Only a handful of potential mitosomal proteins were found to be encoded in the complete genome of the microsporidian Encephalitozoon cuniculi, and significantly no proteins of the mitochondrial carrier family were identified. These carriers facilitate the transport of solutes across the inner mitochondrial membrane, are a means of communication between the mitochondrion and cytosol, and are abundant in organisms with aerobic mitochondria. Here, we report the characterization of a mitochondrial carrier protein in the microsporidian Antonospora locustae and demonstrate that the protein is heterologously targeted to mitochondria in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The protein is phylogenetically allied to the NAD⁺ transporter of S. cerevisiae, but we show that it has high specificity for ATP and ADP when expressed in Escherichia coli. An ADP/ATP carrier may provide ATP for essential ATP-dependent mitosomal processes such as Hsp70-dependent protein import and export of iron-sulfur clusters to the cytosol.     

The Mitochondrion: An Integration Point of Cellular Metabolism and Signalling

In addition to efficient synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, acquisition of the mitochondrial endosymbiont brought a whole range of new metabolic capabilities to the ancestral eukaryotic cell lineage such that the mitochondrion retains an important role in numerous anabolic and catabolic processes. While respiration dominates metabolism of the mitochondrion, this organelle is also important in the catabolism of amino acids and the provision of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis of a wide range of compounds including amino acids, vitamins, lipids, and tetrapyrroles. However, mitochondrial metabolism is best understood in the context of cellular metabolism as a whole; this is particularly true in auxotrophic organisms such as plants. For this reason understanding of the integration of mitochondrial metabolism with associated metabolic pathways in distinct cellular locations is of great importance. The examples of photorespiration, proline, cysteine, branched chain amino acid, ascorbate and folate metabolism all indicate that mitochondrial steps in these pathways are critical to their function and regulation. Moreover, the central metabolic position of the mitochondrion and its key roles in bioenergetics and redox regulation, additionally mean that it is ideally placed to act as a sensor of the biochemical status of the cell. When taken together these observations suggest that the myriad nonrespiratory functions of the mitochondria are of vast importance in the coordination of plant cellular metabolism and function.     

Changes in ATP Concentration, Mitochondrial Structures, and Rhodamine 123 Binding in Two Marine Dinoflagellates Cultured in the Presence of Parathion

Parathion, an organophosphorus insecticide, is highly toxic to the two free-living marine dinoflagellates Prorocentrum micans Ehrenberg (autotrophic) and Crypthecodinium cohnii Biechler (heterotrophic). To study its non-antiacetylcholinesterase action we assessed its effect on the mitochondrial system, as shown by changes in intracellular ATP concentration and in rhodamine 123 fluorescence evaluated by image analysis. The technique of image analysis permits direct assessment of changes in the overall activity of mitochondria in living cells. Mitochondrial structures were also examined in the electron microscope. The three methods of investigation yielded complementary results. In P. micans , parathion noticeably altered mitochondria but did not significantly alter ATP concentrations. In C. cohnii , however, mitochondrial disturbance was slight, whereas ATP increased greatly. We think, therefore, that parathion has different effects on mitochondria in the two organisms, and in particular that it increases mitochondrial activity in C. cohnii .     

Recovery of adriamycin induced mitochondrial dysfunction in liver by selenium

Adriamycin (ADR) is a chemotherapeutic drug. Its toxicities may associate with mitochondriopathy. Selenium (Se) is a trace element for essential intracellular antioxidant enzymes. However, there is lack of data related to the effect of selenium on the liver tissue of ADR-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. The study was to investigate whether Se could restore mitochondrial dysfunction of liver-exposed ADR. Rats were divided into four groups as a control, ADR, Se, co-treated ADR with Se groups. The biochemical measurements of the liver were made in mitochondrial and cytosol. ATP level and mitochondria membrane potential (MMP) were measured. Total oxidant (TOS), total antioxidant (TAS) status were determined and oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated by using TOS and TAS. ADR increased TOS in mitochondria and also oxidative stress in mitochondria. ADR sligtly decreased MMP, and ATP level. Partial recovery of MMP by Se was able to elevate the ATP production in cotreatment of ADR with Se. TOS in mitochondria and cytosol was diminished, as well as OSI. We concluded that selenium could potentially be used against oxidative stress induced by ADR in liver, resulting from the restoration of MMP and ATP production and prevention of mitochondrial damage in vivo.     

Glucose deprivation induces mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in PC12 cell line

Glucose metabolism plays a pivotal role in many physiological and pathological conditions. To investigate the effect of hypoglycemia (obtained by glucose deprivation) on PC12 cell line, we analyzed the cell viability, mitochondrial function (assessed by MTT reduction, cellular ATP level, mitochondrial transmembrane potential), and the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) after glucose deprivation (GD). Upon exposure to GD, ROS level increased and MTT reduction decreased immediately, intracellular ATP level increased in the first 3 hours, followed by progressive decrease till the end of GD treatment, and the mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨ_m) dropped after 6 hours. Both necrosis and apoptosis occurred apparently after 24 hours which was determined by nuclei staining with propidium iodide(PI) and Hoechst 33342. These data suggested that cytotoxity of GD is mainly due to ROS accumulation and ATP depletion in PC12 cells.     

The abnormal-shaped mitochondria in thymus lymphocytes treated with inhibitors of mitochondrial energetics

The effects of uncouplers (DNP, FCCP), oligomycin, and rotenone on the energetics and mitochondrial ultrastructure in lymphocytes have been studied. We confirmed the previous observations done on Ehrlich ascites and cardiomyocyte culture cells that uncouplers and respiratory inhibitors cause the appearance of ringlike and dumbbell-like mitochondria. It is shown that this effect does not correlate with decrease in ATP concentration, changes in oxygen consumption, or condensation of the mitochondrial matrix. FCCP (2 µM) is more effective in the induction of abnormal-form mitochondria than 240 µM DNP, oligomycin, or rotenone. Combined treatment with DNP, oligomycin, and rotenone or with DNP and rotenone produces an effect as strong as 2 µm FCCP. DNP (240 µM) and FCCP (2 µM) have a similar effect on respiration and intracellular ATP, but only the latter induces condensation of the mitochondrial matrix.     

Chlamydia trachomatis targets mitochondrial dynamics to promote intracellular survival and proliferation

Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular bacterium that scavenges host metabolic products for its replication. Mitochondria are the power plants of eukaryotic cells and provide most of the cellular ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. Several intracellular pathogens target mitochondria as part of their obligatory cellular reprogramming. This study was designed to analyse the mitochondrial morphological changes in response to C. trachomatis infection in HeLa cells. Mitochondrial elongation and fragmentation were found at the early stages and late stages of C. trachomatis infection, respectively. C. trachomatis infection‐induced mitochondrial elongation was associated with the increase of mitochondrial respiratory activity, ATP production, and intracellular growth of C. trachomatis. Silencing mitochondrial fusion mediator proteins abrogated the C. trachomatis infection‐induced elevation in the oxygen consumption rate and attenuated chlamydial proliferation. Mechanistically, C. trachomatis induced the elevation of intracellular cAMP at the early phase of infection, followed by the phosphorylation of fission‐inactive serine residue 637 (S637) of Drp1, resulting in mitochondrial elongation. Accordingly, treatment with adenylate cyclase inhibitor diminished mitochondrial elongation and bacterial growth in infected cells. Collectively, these results strongly indicate that C. trachomatis promotes its intracellular growth by targeting mitochondrial dynamics to regulate ATP synthesis via inhibition of the fission mediator Drp1.