Ontogenetic plasticity of anatomical and ecophysiological traits and their correlations in Iris pumila plants grown in contrasting light conditions

To better understand what directs and limits the evolution of phenotype, constraints in the realization of the optimal phenotype need to be addressed. That includes estimations of variability of adaptively important traits as well as their correlation structures, but also evaluation of how they are affected by relevant environmental conditions and development phases. The aims of this study were to analyze phenotypic plasticity, genetic variability and correlation structures of important Iris pumila leaf traits in different light environments and ontogenetic phases, and estimate its evolutionary potential. Stomatal density, specific leaf area, total chlorophyll concentration and chlorophyll a/b ratio were analyzed on I. pumila full‐sib families in the seedling phase and on the same plants after 3 years of growth in contrasting light conditions typical for ontogenetic stage in question. There was a significant phenotypic plasticity in both ontogenetic stages, but significant genetic variability was detected only for chlorophyll concentrations. Correlations of the same trait between different stages were weak due to changes in environmental conditions and difference in ontogenetic reaction norms of different genotypes. Ontogenetic variability of correlation structures was detected, where correlations and integration were higher in seedlings compared with adult plants 3 years later. Correlations were affected by environmental conditions, with integration being higher in the lower light conditions, but correlations between phases being stronger in the higher light treatment. These findings demonstrated that the analyzed traits can be selected and can mostly evolve independently in different environments and ontogenetic stages, with low genetic variability as a potentially main constraint.     

Low genetic diversity contrasts with high phenotypic variability in heptaploid Spartina densiflora populations invading the Pacific coast of North America

Species can respond to environmental pressures through genetic and epigenetic changes and through phenotypic plasticity, but few studies have evaluated the relationships between genetic differentiation and phenotypic plasticity of plant species along changing environmental conditions throughout wide latitudinal ranges. We studied inter‐ and intrapopulation genetic diversity (using simple sequence repeats and chloroplast DNA sequencing) and inter‐ and intrapopulation phenotypic variability of 33 plant traits (using field and common‐garden measurements) for five populations of the invasive cordgrass Spartina densiflora Brongn. along the Pacific coast of North America from San Francisco Bay to Vancouver Island. Studied populations showed very low genetic diversity, high levels of phenotypic variability when growing in contrasted environments and high intrapopulation phenotypic variability for many plant traits. This intrapopulation phenotypic variability was especially high, irrespective of environmental conditions, for those traits showing also high phenotypic plasticity. Within‐population variation represented 84% of the total genetic variation coinciding with certain individual plants keeping consistent responses for three plant traits (chlorophyll b and carotenoid contents, and dead shoot biomass) in the field and in common‐garden conditions. These populations have most likely undergone genetic bottleneck since their introduction from South America; multiple introductions are unknown but possible as the population from Vancouver Island was the most recent and one of the most genetically diverse. S. densiflora appears as a species that would not be very affected itself by climate change and sea‐level rise as it can disperse, establish, and acclimate to contrasted environments along wide latitudinal ranges.     

火龙果种质资源果实特性的遗传多样性分析

为筛选火龙果(Hylocereus undatus)优良种质资源,对22份种质资源果实的表型性状、农艺性状、品质性状进行遗传多样性分析。结果表明,火龙果种质资源果实的表型性状、农艺性状和品质性状具有丰富的遗传多样性和较高的变异性,表型性状的多样性指数(H′)为0～1.04,品质性状为0.40～2.01;农艺性状的变异系数(CV)为0.06～0.38,品质性状为0.01～0.62。聚类分析表明,在遗传距离为15时,火龙果22份种质资源可分为5类,说明不同资源间亲缘关系较远。这为发掘火龙果的育种潜力,筛选优异基因资源,改良种质奠定了基础。     

Genetic variation for foot-rot and Fusarium head-blight resistances among full-sib families of a self-incompatible winter rye (Secale cereale L.) population

The amount of genetic variation for resistance to foot rot caused by Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides, Fusarium spp., and Microdochium nivale and for resistance to head blight caused by Fusarium culmorum are important parameters when estimating selection gain from recurrent selection in winter rye. One-hundred and eighty-six full-sib families of the selfincompatible population variety Halo, representing the Petkus gene pool, were tested for foot-rot resistance at five German location-year combinations (environments) and for head-blight resistance in three environments with artificial inoculation in all but one environment. Foot-rot rating was based on 25 stems per plot scored individually on a 1–9 scale. Head-blight resistance was plotwise scored on a 1–9 scale and, additionally, grain-weight per spike was measured relative to the non-inoculated control plots. Significant estimates of genotypic variance and medium-sized heritabilities (h ²=0.51–0.69) were observed in the combined analyses for all resistance traits. In four out of five environments, the amount of genetic variance was substantially smaller for foot-rot than for head-blight rating. Considerable environmental effects and significant genotype-environment interactions were found for both foot-rot and head-blight resistance. Coefficients of error-corrected correlation among environments were considerably closer than phenotypic correlations. No significant association was found between the resistances to both diseases (r=-0.20 to 0.17). In conclusion, intra-population improvement by recurrent selection should lead to substantial higher foot-rot and head-blight resistances due to significant quantitative genetic variation within Halo. Selection should be carried out in several environments. Lack of correlation between foot-rot and head-blight resistance requires separate infection tests for improving both resistances.     

Genetic,phenotypic, and environmental correlations in black medic,Medicago lupulina L., grown in three different environments

We have investigated the relationship between phenotypic and genetic correlations among a large number of quantitative traits (36) in three different environments in order to determine their degree of disparity and whether phenotypic correlations could be substituted for their genetic counterparts whatever the environment. We also studied the influence of the environment on genetic and phenotypic correlations. Twenty accessions (full-sib families) ofMedicago luPulina were grown in three environments. In two of these two levels of environmental stress were generated by harvesting plants at flowering and by growing plants in competition with barley, respectively. A third environment, with no treatment, was used as a control with no stress. Average values of pod and shoot weight indicate that competition induces the highest level of stress. The genetic and phenotypic correlations among the 36 traits were compared. Significant phenotypic correlations were obtained easily, while there was no genetic variation for 1 or the 2 characters being correlated. The large positive correlation between the genetic and phenotypic correlation matrices indicated a good proportionality between genetic and phenotypic correlations matrices but not their similarity. In a given environment, when only those traits with a significant genetic variance were taken into account, there were still differences between genetic and phenotypic correlations, even when levels of significance for phenotypic correlations were lowered. Consequently, it is dangerous to substitute phenotypic correlations for genetic correlations. The number of traits that showed genetic variability increased with increasing environmental stress, consequently the number of significant genetic correlations also increased with increasing environmental stress. In contrast, the number of significant phenotypic correlations was not influnced by the environment. The structures of both phenotypic and genetic matrices, however, depended on the environment, and not in the same way for both matrices.     

Genetic structure of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tuber mesentericum</Emphasis> Vitt. based on polymorphisms at the ribosomal DNA ITS

Tuber mesentericum fruit bodies are in increasing demand on the food market and are an important economic resource for southern Italy, their major production area. Because molecular studies on this truffle species are very scarce, we analyzed ITS1 and ITS2 nucleotide variability of 126 ascocarps of T. mesentericum collected in different European areas, mainly southern Italy. The results of haplotype distribution, analysis of molecular variance, and spatial analysis of molecular variance analyses show strong genetic structuring of the samples collected in the different geographic areas, confirmed by parsimony and distance analyses. In particular, the Italian samples seem to be a well-distinguished group.     

14个杉木家系主要用材性状表型多样性分析与评价

为了解杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)家系间用材性状的表型变异特征,采用方差分析、聚类分析、主成分分析等方法,对14个杉木家系的10个生长指标进行表型多样性分析和综合评价。结果表明,杉木家系主要用材性状的表型多样性指数为1.438～2.008,平均为1.735,最大的是树高,最小的是管胞长度。表型多样性丰富,其中,树高、胸径、单株材积、管胞长宽比和生材密度具有较强的遗传变异性,且各性状间具有一定相关性。家系遗传力(H2)为0.012～0.934,最大的是管胞长宽比,最小的是生材密度。表型变异系数为3.81%～39.90%,平均为15.03%,最大的是单株材积、最小是管胞腔径比,遗传改良潜力大。14个杉木家系可划分为3大类群,其中,类群Ⅲ的综合性状最优,类群I的生长量最佳。综合性状排名前3的家系是JX3、JX10和JX2。因此,10个主要用材性状的表型多样性丰富,筛选出的3个家系可作为优良材料用于杉木种质的保存与高效利用。     

Diversity of parental environments increases phenotypic variation in Arabidopsis populations more than genetic diversity but similarly affects productivity

Background and AimsThe observed positive diversity effect on ecosystem functioning has rarely been assessed in terms of intraspecific trait variability within populations. Intraspecific phenotypic variability could stem both from underlying genetic diversity and from plasticity in response to environmental cues. The latter might derive from modifications to a plant’s epigenome and potentially last multiple generations in response to previous environmental conditions. We experimentally disentangled the role of genetic diversity and diversity of parental environments on population productivity, resistance against environmental fluctuations and intraspecific phenotypic variation.MethodsA glasshouse experiment was conducted in which different types of Arabidopsis thaliana populations were established: one population type with differing levels of genetic diversity and another type, genetically identical, but with varying diversity levels of the parental environments (parents grown in the same or different environments). The latter population type was further combined, or not, with experimental demethylation to reduce the potential epigenetic diversity produced by the diversity of parental environments. Furthermore, all populations were each grown under different environmental conditions (control, fertilization and waterlogging). Mortality, productivity and trait variability were measured in each population.Key ResultsParental environments triggered phenotypic modifications in the offspring, which translated into more functionally diverse populations when offspring from parents grown under different conditions were brought together in mixtures. In general, neither the increase in genetic diversity nor the increase in diversity of parental environments had a remarkable effect on productivity or resistance to environmental fluctuations. However, when the epigenetic variation was reduced via demethylation, mixtures were less productive than monocultures (i.e. negative net diversity effect), caused by the reduction of phenotypic differences between different parental origins.ConclusionsA diversity of environmental parental origins within a population could ameliorate the negative effect of competition between coexisting individuals by increasing intraspecific phenotypic variation. A diversity of parental environments could thus have comparable effects to genetic diversity. Disentangling the effect of genetic diversity and that of parental environments appears to be an important step in understanding the effect of intraspecific trait variability on coexistence and ecosystem functioning.     

The quantitative genetics of two life history trade-offs in the yellow dung fly in abundant and limited food environments

The trade-offs between body size and development time and between egg size and egg number (clutch size) are central to life history theory, but evidence for them, particularly in terms of genetic correlations, is equivocal. For the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria (Diptera: Scathophagidae), we investigated variation in phenotypic and genetic variances and covariances, i.e. heritabilities and genetic correlations, of these life history traits (plus diapause) in benign and stressful larval field or adult laboratory food environments. We found both trade-offs to be weak, as evidenced by low phenotypic and genetic correlations, but stronger in the food limited environments. Broad sense heritabilities were generally significant for all traits considered, whereas the narrow sense heritabilities for egg and clutch size were nil. With regard to the question of how environmental stress affects heritabilities, we found a whole range of responses within one single species depending on the traits considered. All three possible patterns occurred, i.e. increased h² due to increased V_G or decreased decreased h² due to increased and no change in h² due to increased V_G and V_P. These can be explained by the particular ecological circumstances yellow dung flies face in their natural environment. Nevertheless, the majority of patterns was consistent with the idea that stressful conditions amplify phenotypic differences between genotypes. Such variable responses of traits even within one organism underscores the complexity of this issue and may well explain the multiple patterns found in various organisms.Co-ordinating editor: Leimar     

Population structure and mycelial phenotypic variability of the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Laccaria bicolor (Maire) Orton

Mating type allele distribution and phenotypic variability were investigated in field populations of Laccaria bicolor. Sporophores associated with Norway spruce (Picea abies), colonized by natural sources of inoculum and growing in a seed orchard, were sampled to obtain dikaryotic strains and assay their phenotypic variability for traits important to the symbiosis. Basid-iospores were also collected for mating type analysis of different mycelia. Four sporophore mating types were identified containing seven A and five B factors. Out-breeding efficiency was estimated at 73.8% and the population was slightly inbred. Crosses with previously characterized L. bicolor strains from two nearby populations identified in total six sporophore mating types and ten A and nine B factors, for an estimated outbreeding efficiency (85.7%) similar to previous studies of more spatially disparate Laccaria spp. populations. Dikaryotic strains were tested for mycelial growth rate, as a measure of their competitive ability, on agar media containing a soluble (NaH₂PO₄), or an insoluble (CaHPO₄) phosphate source. Their ability to solubilize the latter was also tested to assess their relative capacity to access insoluble, inorganic phosphate. In most cases, significant variation was detected among strains from the same site for all variables. On three sites (VC4, VC5 and VC7), each determined previously to possess a uniform mycelial genotype, phenotypic variability was likely due to epigenetic variation among different strains of the same genotype. Possible evidence for dikaryon-monokaryon crosses was observed in vivo on one sample site (VC2) where adjacent mycelia shared two mating factors. The phenotypic variability of different mycelial genotypes reflected their genetic variability observed as mating type allele diversity and underlined the importance of basidiospore dispersal in introducing new genotypes into the population. The reproductive strategies of L. bicolor are discussed and compared to those of other basidiomycete species.     

Genetic variability in host plant adaptation of the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae

The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulz.), is polyphagous on over 400 plant species in more than 50 families. Phenotypic plasticity of individuals and genetic variability in the population presumably contribute to this polyphagy. The genetic variability in field populations of M. persicae was assessed with respect to their adaptation to sugar beets and potatoes. An analysis of more than 1 000 clones, sampled during 1980, 1981 and 1982 from different host plants in the field, revealed a wide genetic variability in host plant adaptation to sugar beets as well as to potatoes. Both traits seem to be inherited independently from each other and do not correlate with clone-specific host plant preference of apterous adults. The aphid M. persicae can be characterized as a polyphagous insect species with a wide, continuously distributed variability and a broad phenotypic plasticity. A general differentiation of herbivorous species into generalists and specialists tends to ignore the genetic component in the complex of insect-plant relationships.

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Zusammenfassung Die Grüne Pfirsichblattlaus Myzus persicae (Sulz.) lebt polyphag an über 400 Pflanzenarten in mehr als 50 Pflanzenfamilien. Ein breites Nahrungsspektrum einer Art ergibt sich jedoch aus der phänotypischen Plastizität des Individuums oder einer Klonlinie und der genetischen Variabilität der Population. Felpopulationen der Grünen Pfirsichblattlaus wurden auf ihre genetische Variabilität bezüglich der Wirtspflanzenanpassung an Rübe und Kartoffel untersucht. Eine Analyse von mehr als 1 000 Klonen, die über die Jahre 1980, 1981 und 1982 im Rheinland gesammelt wurden, lassen eine breite Variabilität in der Wirtspflanzenanpassung der Population erkennen. Beide Merkmale scheinen unabhängig voneinander vererbt zu werden und zeigen keine Beziehung zum Wirtswahlverhalten adult apterer Läuse der entsprechenden Klone. Die Art M. persicae kann daher charakterisiert werden als eine polyphage Insektenart mit einer breiten genetischen Variabilität und einer grossen phänotypischen Plastizität. Eine generelle Differenzierung von Herbivoren in Generalisten und Spezialisten vernachlässigt die genetische Komponente in der komplexen Beziehung zwischen Insekten un ihren Wirtspflanzen.

     

np2QTL: networking phenotypic plasticity quantitative trait loci across heterogeneous environments

Despite its critical importance to our understanding of plant growth and adaptation, the question of how environment‐induced plastic response is affected genetically remains elusive. Previous studies have shown that the reaction norm of an organism across environmental index obeys the allometrical scaling law of part‐whole relationships. The implementation of this phenomenon into functional mapping can characterize how quantitative trait loci (QTLs) modulate the phenotypic plasticity of complex traits to heterogeneous environments. Here, we assemble functional mapping and allometry theory through Lokta?Volterra ordinary differential equations (LVODE) into an R‐based computing platform, np²QTL, aimed to map and visualize phenotypic plasticity QTLs. Based on LVODE parameters, np²QTL constructs a bidirectional, signed and weighted network of QTL?QTL epistasis, whose emergent properties reflect the ecological mechanisms for genotype?environment interactions over any range of environmental change. The utility of np²QTL was validated by comprehending the genetic architecture of phenotypic plasticity via the reanalysis of published plant height data involving 3502 recombinant inbred lines of maize planted in multiple discrete environments. np²QTL also provides a tool for constructing a predictive model of phenotypic responses in extreme environments relative to the median environment.     

Genetic Variation Among <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penicillium crustosum</Emphasis> Isolates from Arctic and other Ecological Niches

Penicillium crustosum is an important and panglobal contaminant of lipid- and protein-rich foods and feeds. Although it is infrequent in extremely cold environments, we isolated a high number of P. crustosum strains from Arctic coastal, but particularly, subglacial environments in Svalbard, Norway. P. crustosum is extremely consistent in its phenotypic properties, including morphology, physiology, and secondary metabolite production. However, some Arctic isolates differed from other Arctic and non-Arctic strains in their weak growth on creatine and in the production of the secondary metabolite andrastin A. In this study, we characterized genetic variability of P. crustosum strains originating from different Arctic and non-Arctic environments using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and, in addition, M13 minisatellite fingerprinting and partial β-tubulin gene sequencing. Most of the Arctic strains (85%) showed a relatively low variability and polymorphism level. They produced nine different AFLP genotypes grouped into two clusters in accordance with glacier origin and creatine utilization. The rest of the Arctic isolates and isolates from various non-Arctic environments displayed a much greater degree of genetic variability. It seems that in stressful glacial environment low microbial genetic variation is represented by only a few adapted genotypes that were not recovered from nonpolar environments.     

Relationships among analytical methods used to study genotypic variation and genotype-by-environment interaction in plant breeding multi-environment experiments

Following the recognition of the importance of dealing with the effects of genotype-by-environment (G ×E) interaction in multi-environment testing of genotypes in plant breeding programs, there has been substantial development in the area of analytical methodology to quantify and describe these interactions. Three major areas where there have been developments are the analysis of variance, indirect selection, and pattern analysis methodologies. This has resulted in a wide range of analytical methods each with their own advocates. There is little doubt that the development of these methodologies has greatly contributed to an enhanced understanding of the magnitude and form ofG ×E interactions and our ability to quantify their presence in a multi-environment experiment. However, our understanding of the environmental and physiological bases of the nature ofG ×E interactions in plant breeding has not improved commensurably with the availability of these methodologies. This may in part be due to concentration on the statistical aspects of the analytical methodologies rather than on the complementary resolution of the biological basis of the differences in genotypic adaptation observed in plant breeding experiments. There are clear relationships between many of the analytical methodologies used for studying genotypic variation andG ×E interaction in plant breeding experiments. However, from the numerous discussions on the relative merits of alternative ways of analysingG ×E interactions which can be found in the literature, these relationships do not appear to be widely appreciated. This paper outlines the relevant theoretical relationships between the analysis of variance, indirect selection and pattern analysis methodologies, and their practical implications for the plant breeder interested in assessing the effects ofG ×E interaction on the response to selection. The variance components estimated from the combined analysis of variance can be used to judge the relative magnitude of genotypic andG ×E interaction variance. Where concern is on the effect of lack of correlation among environments, theG ×E interaction component can be partitioned into a component due to heterogeneity of genotypic variance among environments and another due to the lack of correlation among environments. In addition, the pooled genetic correlation among all environments can be estimated as the intraclass correlation from the variance components of the combined analysis of variance. WhereG ×E interaction accounts for a large proportion of the variation among genotypes, the individual genetic correlations between environments could be investigated rather than the pooled genetic correlation. Indirect selection theory can be applied to the case where the same character is measured on the same genotypes in different environments. Where there are no correlations of error effects among environments, the phenotypic correlation between environments may be used to investigate indirect response to selection. Pattern analysis (classification and ordination) methods based on standardised data can be used to summarise the relationships among environments in terms of the scope to exploit indirect selection. With the availability of this range of analytical methodology, it is now possible to investigate the results of more comprehensive experiments which attempt to understand the nature of differences in genotypic adaptation. Hence a greater focus of interest on understanding the causes of the interaction can be achieved.     

Geometric morphometrics and leaf phenotypic plasticity: assessing fluctuating asymmetry and allometry in European white oaks (Quercus)

Because plants are unable to move away from unfavourable habitats and environmental perturbations, leaf phenotypic plasticity facilitates light absorption and gas exchange. Oaks (Quercus spp.) are particularly known for their adaptability and plastic phenotypes, and leaf allometry and developmental instability may represent important mechanisms for their adaptation to environments and evolution. Because of its important role in the adaptation of plant populations to different environments, allometry can be involved in diversifying selection. Developmental instability is related to environmental perturbations and stresses by producing random deviations in structures characterized by bilateral symmetry, such as oak leaves. In addition, developmental instability can also arise from genetic bottlenecks or as a result of hybridization. The splitting of symmetric and asymmetric components of variation and their separate analysis allows the variability in leaf shape traits to be summarized, reducing the variation produced by developmental instability. The geometric morphometric approach is a useful method for the study of leaf asymmetry and allometric patterns. This method provides an important tool for the visualization of shape attributes that characterize species with highly variable leaf phenotypic patterns. In this study, leaf shape and size variability of three white oak species was investigated by means of a two‐dimensional landmark‐based method providing improved knowledge of variance partitioning, species discrimination, fluctuating asymmetry and allometric patterns of variation resulting from the different analyses. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 179 , 335–348.     

Genetic Variation in a Cline in a Living Intertidal Snail Arose in the Neogastropoda over 100 Million Years Ago

To understand how species adapt and evolve it is necessary to appreciate the relationship between genetic variation and the environment. Here, the fossil record and molecular data from different lineages of the marine Gastropoda are used to understand the evolution of genetic variations found in the nuclear gene for mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase (mMDH; EC 1.1.1.37) in the living intertidal Muricid snail, Nucella lapillus. Assuming a molecular clock, DNA sequences of mMDH indicate that two variants found in N. lapillus, mMDH⁹ and mMDH¹⁰, may have arisen as long as 144 MY (million years) ago and at least prior to the evolution of the Muricidae approximately 112–90 MY ago. The Muricidae contain by far the greatest majority of the Neogastropoda specialized for life in the intertidal habitat. In N. lapillus the mMDH⁹ and mMDH¹⁰ variants covary with variations in other biochemically defined loci, inherited phenotypic traits (shell shape and physiology) and karyotype frequencies to differentiate two distinct nuclear haplotypes that are associated with different temperature environments. The variations in shell shape that are associated with the haplotypes of N. lapillus represent adaptations to temperature stress and similar variations occur in other related intertidal molluscs whose lineages are much older than Nucella, which arose around 25 million years ago. It is suggested that the divergence of the mMDH variants found in N. lapillus may reflect an ancient genetic event, such as a chromosomal mutation, perhaps involving variation in other linked traits that together became important in the subsequent evolution of the marine Gastropoda.     

Host influence on floral variability inOrthocarpus densiflorus (Scrophulariaceae)

This study investigates the influence of host plants on the expression of floral variability in the hemiparasiteOrthocarpus densiflorus (Scrophulariaceae), to determine if interaction with host plants can facilitate the expression of normally hidden genes. Style extension inO. densiflorus is highly uniform in natural populations, with less than 1% of the individuals exhibiting an aberrant extended-style condition. Both seed treatment with giberellic acid and parasitic development with host plants significantly facilitates the expression of extended-style in progenies that show only minimal expression when grown autotrophically. Artificial selection experiments demonstrate the range of potential phenotypic variation to be under genetic control, and differentially influenced by the host environment. Although the biochemical basis of the host influence is unknown, some host plants produce stimuli that apparently disrupt buffering inO. densiflorus and expose normally unexpressed genetic variability to selection. If variation in other traits is similarly affected, the influence of host chemistry may provide parasitic plants with a greater than normal opportunity for rapid selectional change.     

Colletotrichum sublineolum genetic instability assessed by mutants resistant to chlorate

The fungus Colletotrichum sublineolum, causal agent of sorghum anthracnose, presents high variability, genetic instability and host specialization. The aims of the present work were to investigate the mechanisms involved in the genetic instability in this species. Mutants resistant to chlorate and unable to use nitrate (Nit mutants), were obtained spontaneously, isolated and characterized for complementation pattern, reversion frequency and RAPD profile. The results showed that chlorate-resistant mutants could be divided into six phenotypic classes that probably represented mutations in the structural nitrate reductase locus (nit1), in the structural nitrite reductase locus (nit6 and niiA of Neurospora and Aspergillus, respectively), in the specific regulator locus (nit3), in the main regulator locus (nit2), in loci that codified the cofactor containing molybdenum necessary for nitrate reductase activity (NitM), and one or more genes responsible for nitrate intake (crn). In addition, the genetic control of this metabolism in C. sublineolum seems to be similar to other fungi species such as Aspergillus, Neurospora and Fusarium. The high reversion frequency (10⁻⁴ to 10⁻⁵) presented by nit1 mutants suggests that the instability in evaluated strains could be a result of transposable elements activity. The RAPD analysis enabled confirmation that the Nit mutants have a similar genetic background to original strain, and that polymorphism exists among wild-type strains, nit1 mutants and revertants of C. sublineolum. These are important aspects for the later direction of molecular analysis, where these mutants will be used as a tool to isolate the active transposable elements in the C. sublineolum genome.     

茶条槭自然种群种子和果实表型多样性研究

为探析茶条槭(Acer ginnala)种子和果实表型差异程度及变异规律,该研究采用巢式方差分析、主成分分析、聚类分析等方法,对茶条槭主要分布区内7个种群种子和果实的12个表型性状进行比较研究,分析茶条槭种群间和种群内的表型多样性以及与地理生态因子的关系。结果表明:除种子长/宽(SLW)外,其它11个表型性状在茶条槭种群间和种群内均具有显著差异;各性状平均变异系数(CV)为13.90%,变异幅度为8.14%～32.08%;种群间翅果性状的平均变异系数(15.63%)高于种子性状的平均变异系数(8.71%),表明种子性状的稳定性高于果实性状。主成份分析中,果实形态特征对茶条槭种群表型的贡献率大于种子贡献率。种群间表型分化系数为35.47%,说明种群内变异(64.53%)大于种群间变异(35.47%),暗示变异主要来源于种群内变异。茶条槭种子和果实表型性状受地理生态因子影响较小,主要受自身遗传因素的影响。基于种群间欧式距离的聚类分析将茶条槭7个种群分为2大支,没有严格按照地理距离而聚类,表明茶条槭种群表型性状变异的不连续性。茶条槭不同种群种子和果实具有较高的表型多样性,与其分布范围和生物学特性有关。     

Genetic and eco-physiological differences of South American Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii isolates support the hypothesis of multiple ecotypes

The global distribution of the toxic cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii has recently increased, and it has now been identified in tropical, subtropical and temperate freshwater bodies. The mechanisms underlying its success and expansion are still unknown. Several hypotheses have been proposed, including climate change, natural selection and physiological tolerance to different environmental conditions. In this study, we determined the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of two recently isolated South American strains of C. raciborskii obtained from Uruguay. We analyzed the morphology, growth preferences, tolerance to low temperature (14 °C) and toxin production of the strains and performed phylogenetic analyses based on the ITS and nifH gene sequences. Both isolates showed significantly different morphology and growth behavior under different light intensities and phosphate supply. When genetic differences were assessed by BOX PCR, cluster analyses revealed that they could also be distinguished genotypically and were clearly distinct from C. raciborskii isolated from other continents. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the Uruguayan strains were closely affiliated to other C. raciborskii isolated from the Americas, especially to those from Brazil. Similar to previous studies, we found three solid clusters (Africa-Australia, Europe and America) according to the geographical origin of the isolates. Interestingly, based on nifH sequences, subclusters were identified in American populations indicating an early spread of the species within the continent. We propose that phenotypic and genetic variability of C. raciborskii populations is linked to the existence of different ecotypes whose success is subject to the local environmental conditions.