Populations ofRhizobium japonicum associated with the surfaces of soil-grown roots

Summary Populations of nativeRhizobium japonicum 123 in the rhizospheres of field and pot grown plants as determined by immunofluorescence were calculated on the basis of root surface area. The density ofR. japonicum 123 on the root fluctuated between a few hundred to over a thousand per square centimeter of root surface. As root volume expanded rapidly, the Rhizobium density fell to less than one hundred per unit area. There was no appreciable effect due to different plant, nitrogen amendment, or addition of another strain ofR. japonicum, on the surface density of the nativeR. japonicum population on roots. Nor did the native population influence the added strain. Direct examination of root surface segments revealed that naturalized rhizobia existed sparsely on root surfaces in the form of short rods. They were observed to be attached sideways or in a polar manner on root hairs, epidermal cells, and at junctions of tap and lateral roots. There was no evidence of specific stimulation of the homologous Rhizobium by the host plant as a prelude to nodulation.     

Electrogenic transport properties of growing Arabidopsis root hairs : the plasma membrane proton pump and potassium channels

Ion transport, measured using double-barreled micropipettes to obtain current-voltage relations, was examined in Arabidopsis thaliana root hairs that continued tip growth and cytoplasmic streaming after impalement with the micropipette. To do this required in situ measurements with no handling of the seedlings to avoid wounding responses, and conditions allowing good resolution microscopy in tandem with the electrophysiological measurements. Two ion transport processes were demonstrated. One was a tetraethylammonium-sensitive potassium ion current, inward at hyperpolarized potentials and outward at depolarized potentials. The addition of tetraethylammonium (a potassium channel blocker) caused the potential to hyperpolarize, indicating the presence of a net inward potassium current through the ion channels at the resting potential. The potassium influx was sufficient to “drive” cellular expansion based upon growth rates. Indeed, tetraethylammonium caused transient inhibition of tip growth. The other electrogenic process was the plasma membrane proton pump, measured by indirect inhibition with cyanide or direct inhibition by vanadate. The proton pump was the dominant contribution to the resting potential, with a very high current density of about 250 microamperes per square centimeter (seen only in young growing root hairs). The membrane potential generated by the proton pump presumably drives the potassium influx required for cellular expansion. The pump appears to be a constant current source over the voltage range −200 to 0 millivolts. With this system, it is now possible to study the physiology of a higher plant cell in dynamic living state using a broad range of cell biological and electrophysiological techniques.     

冬小麦生育中后期次生根特殊根毛的发生与形态结构

大田试验条件下,研究了冬小麦次生根特殊根毛的发生规律和形态结构特征.结果表明,拔节后次生根近植株基部根体上特殊根毛普遍发生,其在次生根根体上的分布可区分为集中区、适中区和稀少区.特殊根毛集中区根毛的长度、直径、密度分别均大于适中区和稀少区,其中,长度和密度的差异达极显著水平(P<0.01).随着生育期推进, 特殊根毛长度、直径和密度均呈下降趋势.大多数特殊根毛呈现出不同程度的扭曲、变形, 根毛细胞突起和分枝现象较为普遍,特殊根毛细胞次生壁出现加厚现象.     

Genotypic differences in the presence of hairs on roots and gynophores of peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) and their significance for phosphorus uptake

Root hairs substantially increase the surface area of plant roots with positive effects for phosphorus (P) uptake, but the ability of peanuts to form root hairs has been questioned. The aim was to examine hair development on roots and gynophores of a variety of peanut genotypes and to relate genotypic differences in hair formation to differences in P uptake. Five out of eighteen genotypes completely lacked hairs on both organs whereas others consistently developed hairs on roots and gynophores, although with considerable variation in hair density. The ability to form root hairs as well as root hair density concurred with the presence and density of hairs on gynophores, suggesting a possible connection between both developmental processes. The contribution of root hairs to P uptake was studied in three genotypes differing in hair density. The final amount of P taken up by roots did not differ between genotypes but two distinct P uptake strategies could be identified. The genotype lacking root hairs maintained P uptake due to the development of a large root system whereas densely covered roots of genotype 'Wasedairyu' were three times as efficient in extracting P from a P-deficient soil. Furthermore P uptake through gynophores contributed about 20% to the total P uptake of Wasedairyu but only insignificant amounts to other genotypes. The ability to form hairs on roots and gynophores can therefore be seen as an adaptation to low P availability and if combined with a large root system, could substantially increase the tolerance of peanuts to P deficiency.     

Growth, Gravitropism, and Endogenous Ion Currents of Cress Roots (Lepidium sativum L.) : Measurements Using a Novel Three-Dimensional Recording Probe

A novel, three-dimensional recording, vibrating probe was used for measuring the density and direction of the endogenous ionic current of cress roots (Lepidium sativum L.) bathed in low salt media (artificial pond water, APW). Roots submerged in regular APW and growing vertically show the following current pattern. Current of 0.7 microampere/square centimeter density enters or leaves the root cap; the current changes direction frequently. Current of 1.6 microamperes/square centimeter enters the meristem zone most of the time. Maximum current with a density of 2.2 microamperes/square centimeter enters the apical elongating zone, i.e. between 0.8 and 1.2 millimeters behind the root tip. The current density decreases to 1.4 microamperes/square centimeter at 2 millimeters, i.e. in the central elongating zone, and to 1.0 microampere/square centimeter at 3 millimeters, i.e. in the basal elongating zone. The current direction changes from inward to predominantly outward between 1.2 and 3 millimeters behind the tip. Measurements on opposite flanks of the roots indicate that the current pattern is fairly symmetrical. After placing the roots horizontally, the density of the endogenous current remains stable, but the current direction changes at the root cap and in the meristem zone. The current leaves the root on the upper side and enters on the lower side, causing a highly asymmetrical current pattern at the very tip. The current pattern at the upper and lower side further away from the tip remains the same as in vertical roots. Roots submerged in low Ca²⁺ APW show a very different current pattern, no gravitropism, and no change of the current pattern after horizontal orientation. In these roots current enters the root cap and the basal elongating zone and leaves the apical elongating zone. Three conclusions are drawn from these results: First, plant roots elongate by two different modes of growth that are correlated with different current directions. They grow by cytoplasmic enlargement at sites of inward current and by turgor-driven elongation at sites of outward current. Second, a change in the current pattern at the root cap and in the meristem zone is a clear indicator of later gravitropism. Third, Ca²⁺ ions are involved in the gravistimulated change in the current pattern, probably affecting the activity of plasmalemma H⁺-ATPases.     

Growth and Movement of Spot Inoculated Rhizobium meliloti on the Root Surface of Alfalfa

Inoculum droplets of approximately 10 nanoliter volume and containing about 10 Rhizobium meliloti cells were placed onto the root surface of alfalfa seedlings in plastic growth pouches at either the root tip, the position of the smallest emergent root hairs, or at a site midway between these points. The droplets were initially confined to an area of about 0.2 square millimeter at the point of application. By 48 and 96 hours after inoculation, the inoculum bacteria and their progeny were distributed over several centimeters of the root between the initial site of deposition and the growing root tip, reaching densities of 10³ to 10⁴ bacteria per centimeter near the site of initial deposition and decreasing exponentially from that point toward the root tip. Graphite particles deposited on the root surface close to the growing tip were similarly distributed along the root length by 48 and 96 hours, suggesting that passive displacement by root cell elongation was primarily responsible for the spread of bacteria. A nonmotile mutant of R. meliloti colonized alfalfa roots to the same extent as the wild type and was usually distributed in the same manner, indicating that bacterial motility contributed little under these conditions to long distance spread of the bacteria. However, when applied in low numbers, R. meliloti mutants defective in motility or chemotaxis were considerably less efficient in initiating nodules near the point of inoculation than the wild type. This implies that motility and/or chemotaxis contribute significantly to local exploration for suitable infection sites. Almost all nodules on the primary root formed within a few millimeters of the spot-inoculation site, indicating that, under our experimental conditions, movement and multiplication of R. meliloti on the root surface were not sufficient to maintain an adequate population in the infectible region of the root during root growth.     

Effect of desiccation on potassium and anion currents from young root hairs: Implication on tip growth

Little is known about the early response of roots to desiccation. Young growing root hairs of Arabidopsis thaliana , Vigna unguiculata and Phaseolus vulgaris were used to study the early response of roots to desiccation since they behave like sensors that are able to perceive environmental signals. In control conditions, root hairs were polarized around −120 mV and displayed inward rectifying K⁺ currents. When submitted to short-term desiccation, root hairs stopped their tip growth and their membrane became depolarized. Under these conditions, the K⁺ influx carried by the inward rectifying K⁺ channels was not maintained and instead slow deactivating anion channels were recorded. The inhibition of K⁺ influx and the large anion efflux due to the activation of slow anion currents could participate in the inhibition of tip growth.     

Significance of root hairs for plant performance under contrasting field conditions and water deficit

Background and AimsPrevious laboratory studies have suggested selection for root hair traits in future crop breeding to improve resource use efficiency and stress tolerance. However, data on the interplay between root hairs and open-field systems, under contrasting soils and climate conditions, are limited. As such, this study aims to experimentally elucidate some of the impacts that root hairs have on plant performance on a field scale.MethodsA field experiment was set up in Scotland for two consecutive years, under contrasting climate conditions and different soil textures (i.e. clay loam vs. sandy loam). Five barley (Hordeum vulgare) genotypes exhibiting variation in root hair length and density were used in the study. Root hair length, density and rhizosheath weight were measured at several growth stages, as well as shoot biomass, plant water status, shoot phosphorus (P) accumulation and grain yield.Key ResultsMeasurements of root hair density, length and its correlation with rhizosheath weight highlighted trait robustness in the field under variable environmental conditions, although significant variations were found between soil textures as the growing season progressed. Root hairs did not confer a notable advantage to barley under optimal conditions, but under soil water deficit root hairs enhanced plant water status and stress tolerance resulting in a less negative leaf water potential and lower leaf abscisic acid concentration, while promoting shoot P accumulation. Furthermore, the presence of root hairs did not decrease yield under optimal conditions, while root hairs enhanced yield stability under drought.ConclusionsSelecting for beneficial root hair traits can enhance yield stability without diminishing yield potential, overcoming the breeder’s dilemma of trying to simultaneously enhance both productivity and resilience. Therefore, the maintenance or enhancement of root hairs can represent a key trait for breeding the next generation of crops for improved drought tolerance in relation to climate change.     

Observations on root hair production by lucerne,maize and perennial ryegrass grown in a sandy loam

Summary Root hair production by young plants of lucerne, maize and perennial ryegrass grown in a sandy loam was assessed by examining roots growing at a soil-glass interface. Results are given for the percentage frequency distribution of root hair lengths and the numbers of root hairs produced per mm root. The mean lengths of root hairs observed on lucerne, maize and perennial ryegrass roots were 0.35, 0.90 and 1.12 mm respectively. Lucerne produced an average of 105 root hairs per mm of root, whereas maize produced 161 and perennial ryegrass produced 88. The total length of root hairs per mm length of root was estimated to be 37, 146 and 99 mm for lucerne, maize and perennial ryegrass resp. Letcombe Laboratory     

Endogenous ion currents traverse growing roots and root hairs of Trifolium repens

Abstract The patterns of naturally growing ion currents associated with horizontally growing roots of Trifolium repens L. seedlings were measured in a simple low-salt bathing medium using a highly sensitive vibrating electrode. Current consistently enters the main elongation zone of the root and leaves from mature, elongated tissue. This current enters and leaves with densities of ca. 4.0–11.0 mA m^?2 and 4.0 mA m^?2, respectively. Current was also delected entering the zone of emerging root hairs and also the root-hair tips themselves. These results are a further example of the involvement of self-generated electrical fields in plant developmental processes. Possible, secondary rhizosphere-associated effects of the extracellular loop of the developmental current are also suggested.     

Non-invasive microscopy of tip-growing root hairs as a tool for study of dynamic and cytoskeleton-based vesicle trafficking

The techniques of live cell imaging by electronic light microscopy and confocal microscopy were used to analyse the cytoarchitecture, organelle dynamics and membrane trafficking in living root hairs of Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago sativa. We focused on the motility of vesicles in the tip of growing root hairs, the internalisation of plasma membrane by endocytosis and the fate of endocytic compartments. Vesicles as well as their trafficking to and contact with the plasma membrane were visualised in the tip of root hairs. We showed rapid endocytosis using a pulse treatment with lipophillic FM dyes in growing root hairs. Endocytosis was active at the very tip and labelled endocytic membranes progressed further down the endocytic network through dynamic compartments merging with the vacuole by their fusion with highly dynamic tonoplast.     

Microtubule dynamics in root hairs of Medicago truncatula

The microtubular cytoskeleton plays an important role in the development of tip-growing plant cells, but knowledge about its dynamics is incomplete. In this study, root hairs of the legume Medicago truncatula have been chosen for a detailed analysis of microtubular cytoskeleton dynamics using GFP-MBD and EB1-YFP as markers and 4D imaging. The microtubular cytoskeleton appears mainly to be composed of bundles which form tracks along which new microtubules polymerise. Polymerisation rates of microtubules are highest in the tip of growing root hairs. Treatment of root hairs with Nod factor and latrunculin B result in a twofold decrease in polymerisation rate. Nonetheless, no direct, physical interaction between the actin filament cytoskeleton and microtubules could be observed. A new picture of how the plant cytoskeleton is organised in apically growing root hairs emerges from these observations, revealing similarities with the organisation in other, non-plant, tip-growing cells.     

Endoplasmic microtubules configure the subapical cytoplasm and are required for fast growth of Medicago truncatula root hairs

To investigate the configuration and function of microtubules (MTs) in tip-growing Medicago truncatula root hairs, we used immunocytochemistry or in vivo decoration by a GFP linked to a MT-binding domain. The two approaches gave similar results and allowed the study of MTs during hair development. Cortical MTs (CMTs) are present in all developmental stages. During the transition from bulge to a tip-growing root hair, endoplasmic MTs (EMTs) appear at the tip of the young hair and remain there until growth arrest. EMTs are a specific feature of tip-growing hairs, forming a three-dimensional array throughout the subapical cytoplasmic dense region. During growth arrest, EMTs, together with the subapical cytoplasmic dense region, progressively disappear, whereas CMTs extend further toward the tip. In full-grown root hairs, CMTs, the only remaining population of MTs, converge at the tip and their density decreases over time. Upon treatment of growing hairs with 1 microM oryzalin, EMTs disappear, but CMTs remain present. The subapical cytoplasmic dense region becomes very short, the distance nucleus tip increases, growth slows down, and the nucleus still follows the advancing tip, though at a much larger distance. Taxol has no effect on the cytoarchitecture of growing hairs; the subapical cytoplasmic dense region remains intact, the nucleus keeps its distance from the tip, but growth rate drops to the same extent as in hairs treated with 1 microM oryzalin. The role of EMTs in growing root hairs is discussed.     

The Arabidopsis Phosphatidylinositol Phosphate 5-Kinase PIP5K3 is a key regulator of root hair tip growth

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] functions as a site-specific signal on membranes to promote cytoskeletal reorganization and membrane trafficking. Localization of PtdIns(4,5)P2 to apices of growing root hairs and pollen tubes suggests that it plays an important role in tip growth. However, its regulation and mode of action remain unclear. We found that Arabidopsis thaliana PIP5K3 (for Phosphatidylinositol Phosphate 5-Kinase 3) encodes a phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase, a key enzyme producing PtdIns(4,5)P2, that is preferentially expressed in growing root hairs. T-DNA insertion mutations that substantially reduced the expression of PIP5K3 caused significantly shorter root hairs than in the wild type. By contrast, overexpression caused longer root hairs and multiple protruding sites on a single trichoblast. A yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) fusion of PIP5K3, driven by the PIP5K3 promoter, complemented the short-root-hair phenotype. PIP5K3-YFP localized to the plasma membrane and cytoplasmic space of elongating root hair apices, to growing root hair bulges, and, notably, to sites about to form root hair bulges. The signal was greatest in rapidly growing root hairs and quickly disappeared when elongation ceased. These results provide evidence that PIP5K3 is involved in localizing PtdIns(4,5)P2 to the elongating root hair apex and is a key regulator of the machinery that initiates and promotes root hair tip growth.     

Ion currents involved in early Nod factor response in Medicago sativa root hairs: a discontinuous single-electrode voltage-clamp study

Nod factor [NodRm-IV(Ac,S)], isolated from the bacterium Rhizobium meliloti, induces a well-known depolarization in Medicago sativa (cv Sitel) root hairs. Analysis of this membrane response using the discontinuous single-electrode voltage-clamp technique (dSEVC) shows that anion channel, K+ channel and H+-ATPase pump currents are involved in young growing root hairs. The early Nod-factor-induced depolarization is due to increase of the inward ion current and inhibition of the H+ pump. It involved an instantaneous inward anion current (IIAC) and/or a time-dependent inward K+ current (IRKC). These two ion currents are then down-regulated while the H+ pump is stimulated, allowing long-term rectification of the membrane potential (Em). Our results support the idea that the regulation of inward current plays a primary role in the Nod-factor-induced electrical response, the nature of the ions carried by these currents depending on the activated anion and/or K+ channels at the plasma membrane.     

The induction of bacterial bioluminescence system on solid medium

Induction of the luminescence system of the marine luminous bacteriumVibrio harveyi growing on a solid medium was studied. The induction occurred when the total number of cells per square centimeter of solid medium approached 10⁴ cells (i.e., either 100 colonies consisting of 100 cells per each colony or 1 colony with about 10⁴ cells). The preinduction period and number of cells per colony at the time of induction decreased as the number of colonies per cm² increased. The ecological significance of the induction of the luminescence system on solid medium is discussed.     

Morphological synergism in root hair length,density, initiation and geometry for phosphorus acquisition in Arabidopsis thaliana: A modeling approach

Low phosphorus availability regulates root hair growth in Arabidopsis by (1) increasing root hair length, (2) increasing root hair density, (3) decreasing the distance between the root tip and the point at which root hairs begin to emerge, and (4) increasing the number of epidermal cell files that bear hairs (trichoblasts). The coordinated regulation of these traits by phosphorus availability prompted us to speculate that they are synergistic, that is, that they have greater adaptive value in combination than they do in isolation. In this study, we explored this concept using a geometric model to evaluate the effect of varying root hair length (short, medium, and long), density (0, 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 root hairs per mm of root length), tip to first root hair distance (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 mm), and number of trichoblast files (8 vs. 12) on phosphorus acquisition efficiency (PAE) in Arabidopsis. SimRoot, a dynamic three-dimensional geometric model of root growth and architecture, was used to simulate the growth of Arabidopsis roots with contrasting root hair parameters at three values of phosphorus diffusion coefficient (D _e=1×10^–7, 1×10^–8, and 1×10^–9 cm² s^–1) over time (20, 40, and 60 h). Depzone, a program that dynamically models nutrient diffusion to roots, was employed to estimate PAE and competition among root hairs. As D _e decreased from 1×10^–7 to 1×10^–9 cm² s^–1, roots with longer root hairs and higher root hair densities had greater PAE than those with shorter and less dense root hairs. At D _e=1×10^–9 cm² s^–1, the PAE of root hairs at any given density was in the order of long hairs > medium length hairs > short hairs, and the maximum PAE occurred at density = 96 hairs mm^–1 for both long and medium length hairs. This was due to greater competition among root hairs when they were short and dense. Competition over time decreased differences in PAE due to density, but the effect of length was maintained, as there was less competition among long hairs than short hairs. At high D _e(1×10^–7 cm² s^–1), competition among root hairs was greatest among long hairs and lowest among short hairs, and competition increased with increasing root hair densities. This led to a decrease in PAE as root hair length and density increased. PAE was also affected by the tip to first root hair distance. At low D _e values, decreasing tip to first root hair distance increased PAE of long hairs more than that of short hairs, whereas at high D _e values, decreasing tip to first root hair distance increased PAE of root hairs at low density but decreased PAE of long hairs at very high density. Our models confirmed the benefits of increasing root hair density by increasing the number of trichoblast files rather than decreasing the trichoblast length. The combined effects of all four root hair traits on phosphorus acquisition was 371% greater than their additive effects, demonstrating substantial morphological synergy. In conclusion, our data support the hypothesis that the responses of root hairs to low phosphorus availability are synergistic, which may account for their coordinated regulation.     

Root Hair Initiation Is Coupled to a Highly Localized Increase of Xyloglucan Endotransglycosylase Action in Arabidopsis Roots

Root hairs are formed by two separate processes: initiation and subsequent tip growth. Root hair initiation is always accompanied by a highly localized increase in xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET) action at the site of future bulge formation, where the trichoblast locally loosens its cell wall. This suggests an important role of XET in the first stages of root hair initiation. The tip of growing root hairs is not marked by localized high XET action. Experiments in which root hair initiation was modulated and observations on root hair mutants support this view. The ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid shifts both root hair initiation and the local increase in XET action toward the root tip. On the other hand, roots treated with the ethylene inhibitor aminoethoxyvinyl-glycine, as well as roots of mutants affected in root hair initiation (rhl1, rhd6-1, and axr2-1) revealed no localized increases of XET action at all and consequently did not initiate root hairs. Disruption of actin and microtubules did not prevent the localized increase in XET action. Also, the temporal and spatial pattern of action as the specific pH dependence suggest that different isoforms of XET act in different processes of root development.     

Microtubules regulate tip growth and orientation in root hairs of Arabidopsis thaliana

The polarized growth of cells as diverse as fungal hyphae, pollen tubes, algal rhizoids and root hairs is characterized by a highly localized regulation of cell expansion confined to the growing tip. In apically growing plant cells, a tip-focused [Ca2+]c gradient and the cytoskeleton have been associated with growth. Although actin has been established to be essential for the maintenance of elongation, the role of microtubules remains unclear. To address whether the microtubule cytoskeleton is involved in root hair growth and orientation, we applied microtubule antagonists to root hairs of Arabidopsis. In this report, we show that depolymerizing or stabilizing the microtubule cytoskeleton of these apically growing root hairs led to a loss of directionality of growth and the formation of multiple, independent growth points in a single root hair. Each growing point contained a tip-focused gradient of [Ca2+]c. Experimental generation of a new [Ca2+]c gradient in root hairs pre-treated with microtubule antagonists, using the caged-calcium ionophore Br-A23187, was capable of inducing the formation of a new growth point at the site of elevated calcium influx. These data indicate a role for microtubules in regulating the directionality and stability of apical growth in root hairs. In addition, these results suggest that the action of the microtubules may be mediated through interactions with the cellular machinery that maintains the [Ca2+]c gradient at the tip.