The effect of one-time external low- and high-dose gamma-irradiation on rat thyroid structure at the acute and remote periods

A study of the morphological structure of the thyroid was made at the acute (1, 3, 6 hours) and remote periods (1, 4, 24, 48 weeks) following the external gamma-irradiation at doses of 0.25-5.0 Gy using histologic and electron microscopic methods. At the acute period, morphological changes prevailed, which reflect the functional alterations (changes of the nucleic and of the follicular diameters and of the colloid density). Frequently they hare a non-synchronous character. At more remote periods, destructive (colloidorrhage, desquamation, hemorrhage) and reparative changes reveal in thyroid, which and by the development of the sclerotic processes and of the morphological signs of decreased functional activity of the gland (increased follicular size and colloidal density, flatness of follicular epithelium and pronounced decreasing of the thyrocytes ultra structure number). The presence of such morphological changes after high and low-dose irradiation (<1.0 Gy) shows high sensitivity of the thyroid to single external radiation.     

Effects of single-dose external gamma irradiation on rat thyroid status as observed during the year

We studied the rat thyroid status depending on the dose of external radiation and the time passed after the exposure. The experiments were carried out on female albino Wistar rats. The doses absorbed amounted to 0.25; 0.5; 1.0; 2.0 and 5.0 Gy. The animals were decapitated after 3, 6, 24 hours and 7, 30, 180 and 365 days following the radiation. The blood serum was assayed for the contents of thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) using a radioimmunological technique. The liver tissue was assayed spectrophotometrically for the activity of thyroid-induced NADP malate dehydrogenase (NADP-MDH). No changes were found in the blood thyroid hormone contents within short periods after the radiation effect. After 6 hours the T4 levels was 1.2-1.3-fold decreased in the blood of rats receiving the radiation doses of 1.0; 2.0; and 5.0 Gy. After a day the T4 concentration was diminished by 1.21-193-fold in all the experimental animals independently of the radiation dose and that of T3--in 2.0 Gy--and 5.0 Gy--irradiated group. After 7 days following the radiation the T4 and T3 contents remained to be decreased by 1.37-1.75 fold and those of NADP-MDH--by 1.3-1.8-fold in all the animal groups. In a month, the low dose-treated animals (0.25, 0.5, 1.0 Gy) showed the level of thyroid hormones reduced to the control values, whereas the 2.0 and 5.0 Gy--treated rats demonstrated this reduction only by 6 months. The decreased concentration of blood thyroid hormones was due not to the activation of their peripheral metabolism, but, probably, to inhibition of their biosynthesis in thyroid cells under conditions of radiation-induced activation of oxidative stress.     

Effect of long-term exposure to low dose gamma-irradiation on the rat thyroid status

The effect of long-term exposure to low-dose external radiation on the rat thyroid status was studied. The experiments were carried out on Wistar female rats. The single doses absorbed were 0.1; 0.25; 0.5 Gy. The rats were irradiated 20 times (5 days x 4 weeks). The animals were decapitated after 1, 30 and 180 days following the last irradiation. Blood serum was assayed for content of thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) radioimmunologically. The liver was spectrophotometrically assayed for thyroid-induced NADP-malatedehydrogenase (NADP-MDH). It was shown that the long-term 0.5-Gy irradiation of the animals induced a decrease in blood T4 and T3 concentrations 1.34-1.71-fold and 1.24-1.43-fold after 1, 30 and 180 days, respectively. The T3 level was diminished most pronouncedly after 1 day, whereas that of T4--after 30 days following the exposure. With the doses of 0.1 and 0.25 Gy absorbed, the T4 and T3 concentration remained unchanged throughout all the periods studied. The activity of NADP-MDH was decreased 1.55-2.46-fold in all the experimental animals, and it was held decreased after 180 days (1.43-1.50-fold) in 0.25- and 0.5-Gy-irradiated groups, which indicates a disturbance in thyroid hormone metabolism in rats exposed chronically to low-dose radiation. After 180 days, the experimental animals experienced an elevation of thyroid gland weight on 15-20%. The thyroid status disturbance seemed to be due to both inhibited T4 and T3 biosynthesis in thyroid and disturbed hormone peripheral metabolism under radiation exposure.     

Histological and ultrastructural alterations of rat thyroid gland after short-term treatment with high doses of thyroid hormones

The aim of the present study was to investigate histological alterations of rat thyroid gland after short-term treatment with supraphysiological doses of thyroid hormones. Rats from experimental groups were treated with triiodothyronine (T3) or thyroxine (T4) during five days. In both treated groups, thyrocyte height was reduced and follicular lumens were distended. Progressive involutive changes of the thyroid parenchyma were apparent, including follicular remodeling (fusion) and death of thyrocytes. Morphological changes confirmed by quantitative analysis were more pronounced in the T4-treated group. Our results demonstrate that thyrotoxicosis, whether induced by T3 or T4, leads to different grades of thyroid tissue injury, including some irreversible damages. These changes might be explained at least in part by lack of trophic and cytoprotective effects of the thyroid stimulating hormone. Since the period required for morphophysiological recovery may be unpredictable, findings presented here should be taken into consideration in cases where the thyroid hormones are used as a treatment for thyroid and non-thyroid related conditions.     

Comparison of potential protective effects of melatonin, indole-3-propionic acid, and propylthiouracil against lipid peroxidation caused by potassium bromate in the thyroid gland

Potassium bromate (KBrO3) is a prooxidant and carcinogen, inducing thyroid tumors. Melatonin and indole-3-propionic acid (IPA) are effective antioxidants. Some antioxidative effects of propylthiouracil (PTU)--a thyrostatic drug--have been found. The aim of the study was to compare protective effects of melatonin, IPA, and PTU against lipid peroxidation in the thyroids, collected from rats treated with KBrO3, and in homogenates of porcine thyroids, incubated in the presence of KBrO3. Wistar rats were administered KBrO3 (110 mg/kg b.w., i.p., on the 10th day of the experiment) and/or melatonin, or IPA (0.0645 mmol/kg b.w., i.p., twice daily, for 10 days), or PTU (0.025% solution in drinking water, for 10 days). Homogenates of porcine thyroids were incubated for 30 min in the presence of KBrO3 (5 mM) plus one of the antioxidants: melatonin (0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, 7.5 mM), or IPA (0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 mM), or PTU (0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 mM). The level of lipid peroxidation products (MDA + 4-HDA) was measured spectrophotometrically in thyroid homogenates. In vivo pretreatment with either melatonin or with IPA or with PTU decreased lipid peroxidation caused by KBrO3--injections in rat thyroid gland. Under in vitro conditions, PTU (5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 mM), but neither melatonin nor IPA, reduced KBrO3-related lipid peroxidation in the homogenates of porcine thyroids. In conclusion, melatonin and IPA may be of great value as protective agents under conditions of exposure to KBrO3.     

Concentration of T3 and T4 in blood of non-irradiated and irradiated with different doses rats fasted for two days beforehand

There were no changes in concentration of T3 and T4 in blood of the rats that were irradiated with a dose of 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 6 Gy in comparison with non-irradiated rats, if the animals were not fed for two days before decapitation. This suggests that the effect of ionizing radiation on thyroid function is mediated by anorexia syndrome. The decrease in concentration of T4 after exposure to 8 Gy cannot be explained by postradiative anorexia and most likely is connected with starting enterotoxemy in difficult cases of acute radiation sickness.     

Thyroid-specific enhancer-binding protein/NKX2.1 is required for the maintenance of ordered architecture and function of the differentiated thyroid

Thyroid-specific enhancer-binding protein (T/ebp)/Nkx2.1-null mouse thyroids degenerate by embryonic day (E) 12-13 through apoptosis whereas T/ebp/Nkx2.1-heterogyzgous mice exhibit hypothyroidism with elevated TSH levels. To understand the role of T/ebp/Nkx2.1 in the adult thyroid, a thyroid follicular cell-specific conditional knockout (KO) mouse line, T/ebp(fl/fl);TPO-Cre, was established that expresses Cre recombinase under the human thyroid peroxidase (TPO) gene promoter. These mice appeared to be healthy and exhibited loss of T/ebp/Nkx2.1 expression in many, but not all, thyroid follicular cells as determined by immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR, thus presenting a T/ebp-thyroid-conditional hypomorphic mice. Detailed analysis of the thyroids from T/ebp(fl/fl), T/ebp(fl/fl);TPO-Cre, and T/ebp(fl/ko) mice, where the latter mouse line is derived from crosses with the original T/ebp/Nkx2.1-heterozygous mice, revealed that T/ebp(fl/fl);TPO-Cre mice can be classified into two groups with different phenotypes: one having atrophic/degenerative thyroid follicles with frequent presence of adenomas and extremely high serum TSH levels, and the other having an altered thyroid structure with reduced numbers of extraordinary dilated follicles consisting of excessive numbers of follicular cells as compared with those usually found in the normal thyroid. The latter phenotype was also observed in aged T/ebp(fl/ko) mouse thyroids. In vitro three-dimensional thyroid primary cultures using thyroids from T/ebp(fl/fl);TPO-Cre, T/ebp(fl/ko), and T/ebp(fl/fl) mice, and the latter treated with recombinant adenovirus with and without Cre expression, demonstrated that only cells from T/ebp(fl/fl) mice without adeno-Cre treatment formed follicular structures. Taken together, these results suggest that T/ebp/Nkx2.1 is required for maintenance of the normal architecture and function of differentiated thyroids.     

Cytogenetic effects in follicular epithelium of thyroid gland under prolonged exposure to gamma-radiation at low-doses

The forming processes of micronucleated follicular thyrocytes in thyroid gland of mature Wistar rats under exposure to the prolonged low-intensity gamma-radiation with 5 and 50 cGy (dose rates: 25, 400 microGy/h; duration: 55, 80 days) were investigated. The chronic exposure to low-intensity gamma-radiation in both doses invokes the frequency of micronuclated thyrocytes three times higher in comparison with control animals. As a result of the small-sized micronuclei formation prevalence in irradiated group, the average size of micronuclei was 1.4-2 times lower than control values. This phenomenon can be reproduced in model experiments with hemithyroidectomized animals exposured to acute gamma-radiation with 2-4 Gy. The obtained results show high sensitivity of micronucleus test to the early determination of radiation-induced genetic damages in follicular epithelium of thyroid gland.     

Differential radiation sensitivity to morphological, functional and molecular changes of human thyroid tissues and bone marrow cells maintained in SCID mice

Morphology and function of human organs and tissues are well maintained in the improved SCID (severe combined immunodeficient) mice for a long period (approximately 3 years). To study the radiation-induced damage on human thyroid gland, human thyroid tissues transplanted to SCID mice were consecutively exposed to X-rays or 137Cs gamma-rays at high and low dose rates for approximately 2 years. Consecutive irradiation resulted in the disappearance of follicles and significant decrease of thyroid hormone secretion. Mutations in p53 and c-kit genes were induced significantly in human thyroid tissues from old head and neck cancer patients (av. 56.8 years, 4 males) and a Graves' disease patient (20 years, male) over the dose of 24 Gy (44.7+/-5.9 Gy, mean+/-S.E) and 11 Gy (20.2+/-7.8 Gy), respectively, while mutations were not detected at lower doses nor in unexposed matched controls (p < 0.01). There were significant differences in mutation frequency in the transplanted human thyroid tissues (31 years, female) between high dose rate (1.19 Gy/min; 8 in 20 tissues) and low dose rate (0.00023 Gy/min; 0 in 14 tissues) exposures (p < 0.01). Mutations were not detected in RET, K-ras and beta-catenin genes. Expression analysis by GeneChip indicated that gene expression was also well maintained in the transplanted human thyroid tissues. However, lower doses (1 or 3 Gy) of 137Cs gamma-rays can induce changes in gene expression in the transplanted human thyroid tissues. Furthermore, fatally irradiated SCID mice could survive with human bone marrow cell transplantation. When about half of mouse bone marrows were replaced by human bone marrow cells, the human bone marrow cells showed high sensitivity to gamma-irradiation; 28.0% and 0.45% survival after 0.5 and 2.0 Gy exposures, respectively.     

Astereological analysis of FRTL-5 cells as an effect of thyrotropin and irradiation

FRTL-5 cell line is a cloned epithelial follicular cell line from Fischer rat thyroids. This cell line expresses many of the thyroid differentiated markers in vitro. Their growth and function depend on thyrotropin (TSH) as the main regulatory hormone. In this astereological analysis, the authors concentrate on FRTL-5 nuclei as the most vulnerable part of the cell. Using morphometrical variables, they wished to discover the morphologically identifiable sign of transformation of FRTL-5 cells after irradiation and to study the effect of different TSH concentrations. FRTL-5 cells were grown in a medium of 4 different concentrations of TSH (0, 0.1, 1, 10 mU/ml) and irradiated with 0 Gy, 2 Gy, and 4 Gy. The results showed that the nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio decreases after irradiation with doses of 4 Gy or if TSH was included in the medium. The nuclear maximum diameter of FRTL-5 cells increased with higher concentrations of TSH more obviously after irradiation with 4 Gy than with 2 Gy. On the basis of astereological analysis, it was concluded that different concentrations of TSH and irradiation exert an effect especially upon FRTL-5 cell nuclei. The possible transformation of FRTL-5 cells after culturing in TSH medium and after irradiation could be confirmed by injection into an animal of the Fischer strain.     

Increase of probability of cell loss in the endothelium of blood vessel capillaries in progeny of rats after a low-dose irradiation of one of the parents (electron microscopy study)

The total gamma-irradiation of Wistar rats at a dose of 0.25 Gy as well as at higher doses (0.5, 2 and 4.5 Gy) produces in the capillary endothelial cells of myocardium and lung a pronounced, dose-independent increase of the yield of necrotized cells. Similar changes were revealed in the animals, of which one of the parents (a male one day, a female seven days prior to copulation) was irradiated at doses of 0.25 and 0.5 Gy. This effect was observed in all studied descendants. The massive induction of the changes already by low radiation actions and their dose-independence allow considering the revealed effects as a manifestation of peculiar cellular reactions that presumably have epigenetic nature.     

Effect of maternal alcohol consumption on the fetal thyroid in the rat

To investigate the effect of maternal alcohol consumption on the development of the fetal thyroid gland, Sprague-Dawley rats were given 20% ethanol for 4 weeks prior to mating and 30% ethanol throughout gestation. Pair-fed controls received an isocaloric amount of corn starch and chow, with water ad libitum, and ad libitum controls received rat chow and water. On Days 17, 18, 19, and 20 of gestation, the fetuses were weighed and the fetal thyroids were removed for histometric observation. On Days 19 and 20, the fetal thyroids of alcohol-exposed fetuses weighed significantly less than those of the two control groups, but more than the control thyroids 1 day earlier. Maternal alcohol consumption caused a significant decrease in both the follicular cell height and the follicle diameter of the fetal thyroid on all days examined. In the alcohol group on Days 19 and 20 of gestation, the cell height was less than, and the follicle diameter was approximately equal to those in the two controls 2 days earlier. These results indicate that, as a consequence of maternal alcohol consumption, growth of the fetal thyroid gland is retarded, and there are indications of fetal hypothyroidism, as seen from the histometric data. This latter is suggestive of a retarded thyrotropic activity of the fetal pituitary gland.     

Selenoproteins of the thyroid gland: expression, localization and possible function of glutathione peroxidase 3

The thyroid gland has an exceptionally high selenium content, even during selenium deficiency. At least 11 selenoproteins are expressed, which may be involved in the protection of the gland against the high amounts of H2O2 produced during thyroid hormone biosynthesis. As determined here by in situ hybridization and Northern blotting experiments, glutathione peroxidases (GPx) 1 and 4 and selenoprotein P were moderately expressed, occurring selectively in the follicular cells and in leukocytes of germinal follicles of thyroids affected by Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Selenoprotein 15 was only marginally expressed and distributed over all cell types. GPx3 mRNA was exclusively localized to the thyrocytes, showed the highest expression levels and was down-regulated in 5 of 6 thyroid cancer samples as compared to matched normal controls. GPx3 could be extracted from thyroidal colloid by incubation with 0.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate indicating that this enzyme is (i) secreted into the follicular lumen and (ii) loosely attached to the colloidal thyroglobulin. These findings are consistent with a role of selenoproteins in the protection of the thyroid from possible damage by H2O2. Particularly, GPx3 might use excess H2O2 and catalyze the polymerization of thyroglobulin to the highly cross-linked storage form present in the colloid.     

Structure of the thyroid gland, serum thyroid hormones, and the reproductive cycle of the Atlantic stingray, Dasyatis sabina.

This study examines the role of the thyroid gland in the control of reproduction in the viviparous Atlantic stingray, Dasyatis sabina. Thyroid activity in individuals in different reproductive stages was assessed both by microscopic examination of the gland, and by analysis of circulating levels of thyroid hormones from the same individuals. The thyroid gland is a cylindric organ, embedded in a connective tissue capsule, and composed of follicles, i.e., monolayer spheres of thyroid epithelial cells. Stingray follicular cells possess several characteristic features, namely apical cilia and a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum. Cells vary in size and shape, according to the activity of the gland. No structural differences were observed between the thyroid glands of the two sexes. Both thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine, [T(3)], and thyroxine, [T(4)], were detected in the serum of all animals examined. Levels ranged from 1.3-2.6 microg/100 ml for total T(4), and from 1.2-2.6 ng/ml for total T(3). The T(4) levels did not vary significantly in any group. Immature individuals and females undergoing oogenesis had the lowest levels of circulating T(3) and mature females from ovulation throughout gestation had high thyroid gland activity and high levels of circulating T(3). J. Exp. Zool. 284:505-516, 1999.     

Response of the thyroid gland of the lizard Podarcis sicula to endothelin-1

Although endothelins were originally discovered as peptides with vasoconstrictor activity, recent studies have indicated a number of endothelin (ET) induced hormonal functions in various tissues. We have studied the interaction of ET-1 with thyroid gland of the lizard Podarcis sicula. The effects of ET-1 administration on the plasma levels of the thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and TSH were stimulatory. Morphological changes in the thyroid after treatment with ET-1 were also detected: the height of the epithelial cells slightly increased and the apical surface acquired microvilli protruding into the follicular lumen. The colloid filled up the lumen and showed a rich peripheral vacuolation. In conclusion, a modulatory role in the control of the reptilian thyroid gland is suggested for ET-1. This is the first report on the interaction of ET-1 with the thyroid gland of reptilian.     

Adenohypophysial-thyroid activity of the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum, as a function of metamorphosis and captivity

The aim of this study was to determine the timing of adenohypophysial activation during metamorphosis of the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum. It consisted of two parts: 1) determination of plasma thyroid hormone concentrations and analysis of thyroid gland histology as a function of metamorphic stage and 2) analysis of the time-course of uptake of 125I by the thyroids during metamorphosis as an indicator of endogenous thyrotropin (TSH) levels. Significant increases in both triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) first were evident at the onset of metamorphic climax (stage II). Maximum levels of both hormones were not observed, however, until the completion of gill resorption (stage VII). No changes in thyroid histology were observed that could be unambiguously related to metamorphic transformation. The thyroids accumulated 125I in a slow but linear fashion in premetamorphic larvae (stage I). However, uptake exhibited a rapid peak during early climax (stage II), before maximum concentrations of thyroid hormones were observed. In addition, uptake was maintained above premetamorphic levels at stage VII, in conjunction with maximum levels of T4 and T3. Captivity alone produced a small but significant increase in plasma concentrations of T3. It produced no significant effect on either thyroid histology or uptake of 125I. These results indicate that adenohypophysial activation occurs rapidly and is maximal at the onset of metamorphic climax.     

The effect of small doses of ionizing radiation on the cAMP system in the thyroid gland of chick embryos

Adenylate cyclase activity and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) content were studied in the thyroid gland of intact and irradiated (0.029 Gy given before incubation) embryos and chickens. The enzyme activity was stimulated and the nucleotide content increased on the 18th day of the embryo development. It is suggested that the observed stimulation of the cAMP system is associated with the increased secretion of the thyrotropic hormone which controls the functional activity of the thyroid gland.