Selective inhibition of β2-adrenergic receptor-mediated cAMP generation by activation of the P2Y2 receptor in mouse pineal gland tumor cells

Rhythmic noradrenergic signaling from the hypothalamic clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus to the pineal gland causes an increase in intracellular cAMP which regulates the circadian fluctuation of melatonin synthesis. The activation of phospholipase C (PLC)-coupled P2Y(2) receptors upon treatment with ATP and UTP exclusively inhibited the isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP production in mouse pineal gland tumor cells. However, the activation of other PLC-coupled receptors including P2Y(1) and bombesin receptors had little or no effect on the isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP production. Also, ATP did not inhibit cAMP production caused by forskolin, prostaglandin E(2), or the adenosine analog NECA. These results suggest a selective coupling between signalings of P2Y(2) and beta(2)-adrenergic receptors. The binding of [(3)H]CGP12177 to beta(2)-adrenergic receptors was not effected by the presence of ATP or UTP. Ionomycin decreased the isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP production, whereas phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate slightly potentiated the isoproterenol response. Chelation of intracellular Ca(2+), however, had little effect on the ATP-induced inhibition of cAMP production, while it completely reversed the ionomycin-induced inhibition. Treatment of cells with pertussis toxin almost completely blocked the inhibitory effect of nucleotides. Pertussis toxin also inhibited the nucleotide-induced increase in intracellular Ca(2+) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production by 30-40%, suggesting that the ATP-mediated inhibition of the cAMP generation and the partial activation of PLC are mediated by pertussis toxin-sensitive G(i)-protein. We conclude that one of the functions of P2Y(2) receptors on the pineal gland is the selective inhibition of beta-adrenergic receptor-mediated signaling pathways via the inhibitory G-proteins.     

Blockade of murine T cell activation by antagonists of P2Y6 and P2X7 receptors

Extracellular nucleotides and their metabolites activate ionotropic P2X and metabotropic P2Y receptors on the surface of various types of cells. Here, we investigated the involvement of P2X and P2Y receptor-mediated signaling in TCR-dependent T cell activation. Murine T cells were activated by stimulation of TCR, and both CD25 expression and interleukin (IL)-2 production were observed in activated T cells. Ecto-nucleotidase apyrase and P2Y₆ antagonist MRS2578 significantly blocked the increases of both CD25 expression and IL-2 production, and P2X₇ antagonists A438079 and oxidized ATP inhibited IL-2 production rather than CD25 expression, suggesting the involvement of P2Y₆ and P2X₇ receptors in different processes of T cell activation. MRS2578 also blocked TCR-dependent elevation of cytosolic Ca²⁺ in T cells. The P2X₇ and P2Y₆ receptors were expressed in murine CD4 T cells. In conclusion, our results indicate that activation of P2Y₆ and P2X₇ receptors contributes to T cell activation via TCR.     

Synthesis and preliminary biological evaluation of a novel P2X7R radioligand [18F]IUR-1601

The reference standard IUR-1601 ((S)-N-(2-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl)-1-(2-fluoroethyl)-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamide) was synthesized from tert-butyl (S)-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxylate, fluoroethylbromide, and 2-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzylamine with overall chemical yield 12% in three steps. The target tracer [¹⁸F]IUR-1601 ((S)-N-(2-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl)-1-(2-[¹⁸F]fluoroethyl)-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamide) was synthesized from desmethyl-GSK1482160 with 2-[¹⁸F]fluoroethyl tosylate, prepared from 1,2-ethylene glycol-bis-tosylate and K[¹⁸F]F/Kryptofix2.2.2, in two steps and isolated by HPLC combined with SPE in 1–3% decay corrected radiochemical yield. The radiochemical purity was >99%, and the molar activity at end of bombardment (EOB) was 74–370?GBq/μmol. The potency of IUR-1601 in comparison with GSK1482160 was determined by a radioligand competitive binding assay using [¹¹C]GSK1482160, and the binding affinity K_i values for IUR-1601 and GSK1482160 are 4.31 and 5.14?nM, respectively.     

The inflammatory effects of UDP-glucose in N9 microglia are not mediated by P2Y14 receptor activation

In this study we evaluated the functionality and inflammatory effects of P2Y14 receptors in murine N9 microglia. The selective P2Y14 receptor agonist UDP-glucose (UDPG) derived from microbial sources dose dependently stimulated expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase, and potentiated the effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharide on nitric oxide production. However, another selective P2Y14 receptor agonist, UDP-galactose, did not affect these endpoints either alone or in combination with lipopolysaccharide. Interestingly, synthetic UDPG also had no detectable pro-inflammatory effects, although P2Y14 receptors are both expressed and functional in N9 microglia. While synthetic UDPG decreased levels of phosphorylated cyclic AMP response element binding protein, an effect that was blocked by pertussis toxin, the pro-inflammatory effects of microbial-derived UDPG were insensitive to pertussis toxin. These data suggest that the pro-inflammatory effects of microbial-derived UDPG are independent of P2Y14 receptors and imply that microbial-derived contaminants in the UDPG preparation may be involved in the observed inflammatory effects. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Lysophosphatidylcholine potentiates Ca2+ influx, pore formation and p44/42 MAP kinase phosphorylation mediated by P2X7 receptor activation in mouse microglial cells

The P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) is an ATP-gated ion channel highly expressed in microglia. P2X7R plays important roles in inflammatory responses in the brain. However, little is known about the mechanisms regulating its functions in microglia. Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), an inflammatory phospholipid that promotes microglial activation, may have some relevance to P2X7R signaling in terms of microglial function. In this study, we examined its effects on P2X7R signaling in a mouse microglial cell line (MG6) and primary microglia. LPC facilitated the sustained increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) through P2X7R channels activated by ATP or BzATP. The potentiated increase in [Ca(2+)](i) was actually inhibited by P2X7R antagonists, brilliant blue G and oxidized ATP. The potentiating effect of LPC was not observed with P2Y receptor systems, which are also expressed in MG6 cells. G2A, a receptor for LPC, was expressed in MG6 cells, but not involved in the facilitating effect of LPC on the P2X7R-mediated change in [Ca(2+)](i). Furthermore, LPC enhanced the P2X7R-associated formation of membrane pores and the activation of p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase. These results suggest that LPC may regulate microglial functions in the brain by enhancing the sensitivity of P2X7R.     

ATP-Stimulated Ca2+ Influx and Phospholipase D Activities of a Rat Brain-Derived Type-2 Astrocyte Cell Line, RBA-2, Are Mediated Through P2X7 Receptors

This study characterizes and examines the P2 receptor-mediated signal transduction pathway of a rat brain-derived type 2 astrocyte cell line, RBA-2. ATP induced Ca2+ influx and activated phospholipase D (PLD). The ATP-stimulated Ca2+ influx was inhibited by pretreating cells with P2 receptor antagonist, pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS), in a concentration-dependent manner. The agonist 2'- and 3'-O-(4-benzoylbenzoyl)adenosine 5'-triphosphate (BzATP) stimulated the largest increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i); ATP, 2-methylthioadenosine triphosphate tetrasodium, and ATPgammaS were much less effective, whereas UTP, ADP, alpha,beta-methylene-ATP, and beta,gamma-methylene-ATP were ineffective. Furthermore, removal of extracellular Mg2+ enhanced the ATP- and BzATP-stimulated increases in [Ca2+]i. BzATP stimulated PLD in a concentration- and time-dependent manner that could be abolished by removal of extracellular Ca2+ and was inhibited by suramin, PPADS, and oxidized ATP. In addition, PLD activities were activated by the Ca2+ mobilization agent, ionomycin, in an extracellular Ca2+ concentration-dependent manner. Both staurosporine and prolonged phorbol ester treatment inhibited BzATP-stimulated PLD activity. Taken together, these data indicate that activation of the P2X7 receptors induces Ca2+ influx and stimulates a Ca2+-dependent PLD in RBA-2 astrocytes. Furthermore, protein kinase C regulates this PLD.     

Dopamine D2 receptor-mediated Akt/PKB signalling: initiation by the D2S receptor and role in quinpirole-induced behavioural activation

The short and long isoforms of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2S and D2L respectively) are highly expressed in the striatum. Functional D2 receptors activate an intracellular signalling pathway that includes a cAMP-independent route involving Akt/GSK3 (glycogen synthase kinase 3). To investigate the Akt/GSK3 response to the seldom-studied D2S receptor, we established a rat D2S receptor-expressing cell line [HEK (human embryonic kidney)-293/rD2S]. We found that in HEK-293/rD2S cells, the D2/D3 agonists bromocriptine and quinpirole significantly induced Akt and GSK3 phosphorylation, as well as ERK1/2 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2) activation. The D2S receptor-induced Akt signals were profoundly inhibited by the internalization blockers monodansyl cadaverine and concanavalin A. Activation of the D2S receptor in HEK-293/rD2S cells appeared to trigger Akt/phospho-Akt translocation to the cell membrane. In addition to our cell culture experiments, we studied D2 receptor-dependent Akt in vivo by systemic administration of the D2/D3 agonist quinpirole. The results show that quinpirole evoked Akt-Ser⁴⁷³ phosphorylation in the ventral striatum. Furthermore, intra-accumbens administration of wortmannin, a PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) inhibitor, significantly suppressed the quinpirole-evoked behavioural activation. Overall, we demonstrate that activation of the dopamine D2S receptor stimulates Akt/GSK3 signalling. In addition, in vivo Akt activity in the ventral striatum appears to play an important role in systemic D2/D3 agonist-induced behavioural activation.     

Serotonin acts as a novel regulator of interleukin-6 secretion in osteocytes through the activation of the 5-HT2B receptor and the ERK1/2 signalling pathway

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a potent stimulator of osteoclastic bone resorption. Osteocyte secretion of IL-6 plays an important role in bone metabolism. Serotonin (5-HT) has recently been reported to regulate bone metabolism. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of serotonin on osteocyte expression of IL-6. The requirement for the 5-HT receptor(s) and the role of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) in serotonin-induced IL-6 synthesis were examined. In this study, real-time PCR and ELISA were used to analyse IL-6 gene and protein expression in serotonin-stimulated MLO-Y4 cells. ERK1/2 pathway activation was determined by Western blot. We found that serotonin significantly activated the ERK1/2 pathway and induced IL-6 mRNA expression and protein synthesis in cultured MLO-Y4 cells. However, these effects were abolished by pre-treatment of MLO-Y4 cells with a 5-HT_2B receptor antagonist, RS127445 or the ERK1/2 inhibitor, PD98059. Our results indicate that serotonin stimulates osteocyte secretion of IL-6 and that this effect is associated with activation of 5-HT_2B receptor and the ERK1/2 pathway. These findings provide support for a role of serotonin in bone metabolism by indicating serotonin regulates bone remodelling by mediating an inflammatory cytokine.     

P2X7 receptor antagonists display agonist-like effects on cell signaling proteins

Background

The activation of various P2 receptors (P2R) by extracellular nucleotides promotes diverse cellular events, including the stimulation of cell signaling protein and increases in [Ca²⁺]_i. We report that some agents that can block P2X₇R receptors also promote diverse P2X₇R-independent effects on cell signaling.

Methods

We exposed native rat parotid acinar cells, salivary gland cell lines (Par-C10, HSY, HSG), and PC12 cells to suramin, DIDS (4,4′-diisothiocyano stilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid), Cibacron Blue 3GA, Brilliant Blue G, and the P2X₇R-selective antagonist A438079, and examined the activation/phosphorylation of ERK1/2, PKCδ, Src, CDCP1, and other signaling proteins.

Results

With the exception of suramin, these agents blocked the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 by BzATP in rat parotid acinar cells; but higher concentrations of suramin blocked ATP-stimulated ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ entry. Aside from A438079, these agents increased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, Src, PKCδ, and other proteins (including Dok-1) within minutes in an agent- and cell type-specific manner in the absence of a P2X₇R ligand. The stimulatory effect of these compounds on the tyrosine phosphorylation of CDCP1 and its Src-dependent association with PKCδ was blocked by knockdown of CDCP1, which also blocked Src and PKCδ phosphorylation.

Conclusions

Several agents used as P2X₇R blockers promote the activation of various signaling proteins and thereby act more like receptor agonists than antagonists.

General significance

Some compounds used to block P2 receptors have complicated effects that may confound their use in blocking receptor activation and other biological processes for which they are employed, including their use as blockers of various ion transport proteins.     

Off-target effect of the Epac agonist 8-pCPT-2′-O-Me-cAMP on P2Y12 receptors in blood platelets

The primary target of the cAMP analogue 8-pCPT-2′-O-Me-cAMP is exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (Epac). Here we tested potential off-target effects of the Epac activator on blood platelet activation signalling. We found that the Epac analogue 8-pCPT-2′-O-Me-cAMP inhibits agonist-induced-GPCR-stimulated, but not collagen-stimulated, P-selectin surface expression on Epac1 deficient platelets. In human platelets, 8-pCPT-2′-O-Me-cAMP inhibited P-selectin expression elicited by the PKC activator PMA. This effect was abolished in the presence of the extracellular ADP scavenger system CP/CPK. In silico modelling of 8-pCPT-2′O-Me-cAMP binding into the purinergic platelet receptor P2Y₁₂ revealed that the analogue docks similar to the P2Y₁₂ antagonist 2MeSAMP. The 8-pCPT-2′-O-Me-cAMP analogue per se, did not provoke Rap 1 (Rap 1-GTP) activation or phosphorylation on the vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) at Ser-157. In addition, the protein kinase A (PKA) antagonists Rp-cAMPS and Rp-8-Br-cAMPS failed to block the inhibitory effect of 8-pCPT-2′-O-Me-cAMP on thrombin- and TRAP-induced Rap 1 activation, thus suggesting that PKA is not involved. We conclude that the 8-pCPT-2′-O-Me-cAMP analogue is able to inhibit agonist-induced-GPCR-stimulated P-selectin independent from Epac1; the off-target effect of the analogue appears to be mediated by antagonistic P2Y₁₂ receptor binding. This has implications when using cAMP analogues on specialised system involving such receptors. We found, however that the Epac agonist 8-Br-2′-O-Me-cAMP did not affect platelet activation at similar concentrations.     

Evidence for a role of CETP in HDL remodeling and cholesterol efflux: Role of cysteine 13 of CETP

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), a key regulator of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) metabolism, induces HDL remodeling by transferring lipids between apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins and HDL, and/or by promoting lipid transfer between HDL subparticles. In this study, we investigated the mechanism as to how CETP induces the generation of lipid-poor particles (pre-β-HDL) from HDL, which increases ATP-binding cassette transporter 1-mediated cholesterol efflux. This CETP-dependent HDL remodeling is enhanced by the CETP modulator dalcetrapib both in plasma and isolated HDL. The interaction of dalcetrapib with cysteine 13 of CETP is required, since this effect was abolished when using mutant CETP in which cysteine 13 was substituted for a serine residue. Other thiol-containing compounds were identified as CETP modulators interacting with cysteine 13 of CETP. In order to mimic dalcetrapib-bound CETP, mutant CETP proteins were prepared by replacing cysteine 13 with the bulky amino acid tyrosine or tryptophan. The resultant mutants showed virtually no CETP-dependent lipid transfer activity but demonstrated preserved CETP-dependent pre-β-HDL generation. Overall, these data demonstrate that the two functions of CETP i.e., cholesteryl ester transfer and HDL remodeling can be uncoupled by interaction of thiol-containing compounds with cysteine 13 of CETP or by introducing large amino acid residues in place of cysteine 13.     

Atg17/FIP200 localizes to perilysosomal Ref(2)P aggregates and promotes autophagy by activation of Atg1 in Drosophila

Phagophore-derived autophagosomes deliver cytoplasmic material to lysosomes for degradation and reuse. Autophagy mediated by the incompletely characterized actions of Atg proteins is involved in numerous physiological and pathological settings including stress resistance, immunity, aging, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Here we characterized Atg17/FIP200, the Drosophila ortholog of mammalian RB1CC1/FIP200, a proposed functional equivalent of yeast Atg17. Atg17 disruption inhibits basal, starvation-induced and developmental autophagy, and interferes with the programmed elimination of larval salivary glands and midgut during metamorphosis. Upon starvation, Atg17-positive structures appear at aggregates of the selective cargo Ref(2)P/p62 near lysosomes. This location may be similar to the perivacuolar PAS (phagophore assembly site) described in yeast. Drosophila Atg17 is a member of the Atg1 kinase complex as in mammals, and we showed that it binds to the other subunits including Atg1, Atg13, and Atg101 (C12orf44 in humans, 9430023L20Rik in mice and RGD1359310 in rats). Atg17 is required for the kinase activity of endogenous Atg1 in vivo, as loss of Atg17 prevents the Atg1-dependent shift of endogenous Atg13 to hyperphosphorylated forms, and also blocks punctate Atg1 localization during starvation. Finally, we found that Atg1 overexpression induces autophagy and reduces cell size in Atg17-null mutant fat body cells, and that overexpression of Atg17 promotes endogenous Atg13 phosphorylation and enhances autophagy in an Atg1-dependent manner in the fat body. We propose a model according to which the relative activity of Atg1, estimated by the ratio of hyper- to hypophosphorylated Atg13, contributes to setting low (basal) vs. high (starvation-induced) autophagy levels in Drosophila.     

Dysfunctional HDL containing L159R ApoA-I leads to exacerbation of atherosclerosis in hyperlipidemic mice

The mutation L159R apoA-I or apoA-I_L159R (FIN) is a single amino acid substitution within the sixth helical repeat of apoA-I. It is associated with a dominant negative phenotype, displaying hypoalphaproteinemia and an increased risk for atherosclerosis in humans. Mice lacking both mouse apoA-I and LDL receptor (LDL^−/−, apoA-I^−/−) (double knockout or DKO) were crossed > 9 generations with mice transgenic for human FIN to obtain L159R apoA-I, LDLr^−/−, ApoA-I^−/− (FIN-DKO) mice. A similar cross was also performed with human wild-type (WT) apoA-I (WT-DKO). In addition, FIN-DKO and WT-DKO were crossed to obtain WT/FIN-DKO mice. To determine the effects of the apoA-I mutations on atherosclerosis, groups of each genotype were fed either chow or an atherogenic diet for 12 weeks. Interestingly, the production of dysfunctional HDL-like particles occurred in DKO and FIN-DKO mice. These particles were distinct with respect to size, and their enrichment in apoE and cholesterol esters. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis indicated that particles found in the plasma of FIN-DKO mice migrated as large α₃-HDL. Atherosclerosis analysis showed that FIN-DKO mice developed the greatest extent of aortic cholesterol accumulation compared to all other genotypes, including DKO mice which lack any apoA-I. Taken together these data suggest that the presence of large apoE enriched HDL particles containing apoA-I L159R lack the normal cholesterol efflux promoting properties of HDL, rendering them dysfunctional and pro-atherogenic. In conclusion, large HDL-like particles containing apoE and apoA-I_L159R contribute rather than protect against atherosclerosis, possibly through defective efflux properties and their potential for aggregation at their site of interaction in the aorta. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Advances in High Density Lipoprotein Formation and Metabolism: A Tribute to John F. Oram (1945-2010).     

Atg17/FIP200 localizes to perilysosomal Ref(2)P aggregates and promotes autophagy by activation of Atg1 in Drosophila

Phagophore-derived autophagosomes deliver cytoplasmic material to lysosomes for degradation and reuse. Autophagy mediated by the incompletely characterized actions of Atg proteins is involved in numerous physiological and pathological settings including stress resistance, immunity, aging, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Here we characterized Atg17/FIP200, the Drosophila ortholog of mammalian RB1CC1/FIP200, a proposed functional equivalent of yeast Atg17. Atg17 disruption inhibits basal, starvation-induced and developmental autophagy, and interferes with the programmed elimination of larval salivary glands and midgut during metamorphosis. Upon starvation, Atg17-positive structures appear at aggregates of the selective cargo Ref(2)P/p62 near lysosomes. This location may be similar to the perivacuolar PAS (phagophore assembly site) described in yeast. Drosophila Atg17 is a member of the Atg1 kinase complex as in mammals, and we showed that it binds to the other subunits including Atg1, Atg13, and Atg101 (C12orf44 in humans, 9430023L20Rik in mice and RGD1359310 in rats). Atg17 is required for the kinase activity of endogenous Atg1 in vivo, as loss of Atg17 prevents the Atg1-dependent shift of endogenous Atg13 to hyperphosphorylated forms, and also blocks punctate Atg1 localization during starvation. Finally, we found that Atg1 overexpression induces autophagy and reduces cell size in Atg17-null mutant fat body cells, and that overexpression of Atg17 promotes endogenous Atg13 phosphorylation and enhances autophagy in an Atg1-dependent manner in the fat body. We propose a model according to which the relative activity of Atg1, estimated by the ratio of hyper- to hypophosphorylated Atg13, contributes to setting low (basal) vs. high (starvation-induced) autophagy levels in Drosophila.     

Ablating both Fabp1 and Scp2/Scpx (TKO) induces hepatic phospholipid and cholesterol accumulation in high fat-fed mice

Although singly ablating Fabp1 or Scp2/Scpx genes may exacerbate the impact of high fat diet (HFD) on whole body phenotype and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), concomitant upregulation of the non-ablated gene, preference for ad libitum fed HFD, and sex differences complicate interpretation. Therefore, these issues were addressed in male and female mice ablated in both genes (Fabp1/Scp2/Scpx null or TKO) and pair-fed HFD. Wild-type (WT) males gained more body weight as fat tissue mass (FTM) and exhibited higher hepatic lipid accumulation than WT females. The greater hepatic lipid accumulation in WT males was associated with higher hepatic expression of enzymes in glyceride synthesis, higher hepatic bile acids, and upregulation of transporters involved in hepatic reuptake of serum bile acids. While TKO had little effect on whole body phenotype and hepatic bile acid accumulation in either sex, TKO increased hepatic accumulation of lipids in both, specifically phospholipid and cholesteryl esters in males and females and free cholesterol in females. TKO-induced increases in glycerides were attributed not only to complete loss of FABP1, SCP2 and SCPx, but also in part to sex-dependent upregulation of hepatic lipogenic enzymes. These data with WT and TKO mice pair-fed HFD indicate that: i) Sex significantly impacted the ability of HFD to increase body weight, induce hepatic lipid accumulation and increase hepatic bile acids; and ii) TKO exacerbated the HFD ability to induce hepatic lipid accumulation, regardless of sex, but did not significantly alter whole body phenotype in either sex.     

Oxidative stress induced by P2X7 receptor stimulation in murine macrophages is mediated by c-Src/Pyk2 and ERK1/2

Background

Activation of ATP-gated P2X7 receptors (P2X7R) in macrophages leads to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by a mechanism that is partially characterized. Here we used J774 cells to identify the signaling cascade that couples ROS production to receptor stimulation.

Methods

J774 cells and mP2X7-transfected HEK293 cells were stimulated with Bz-ATP in the presence and absence of extracellular calcium. Protein inhibitors were used to evaluate the physiological role of various kinases in ROS production. In addition, phospho-antibodies against ERK1/2 and Pyk2 were used to determine activation of these two kinases.

Results

ROS generation in either J774 or HEK293 cells (expressing P2X7, NOX2, Rac1, p47phox and p67phox) was strictly dependent on calcium entry via P2X7R. Stimulation of P2X7R activated Pyk2 but not calmodulin. Inhibitors of MEK1/2 and c-Src abolished ERK1/2 activation and ROS production but inhibitors of PI3K and p38 MAPK had no effect on ROS generation. PKC inhibitors abolished ERK1/2 activation but barely reduced the amount of ROS produced by Bz-ATP. In agreement, the amount of ROS produced by PMA was about half of that produced by Bz-ATP.

Conclusions

Purinergic stimulation resulted in calcium entry via P2X7R and subsequent activation of the PKC/c-Src/Pyk2/ERK1/2 pathway to produce ROS. This signaling mechanism did not require PI3K, p38 MAPK or calmodulin.

General significance

ROS is generated in order to kill invading pathogens, thus elucidating the mechanism of ROS production in macrophages and other immune cells allow us to understand how our body copes with microbial infections.     

Peroxisome deficiency-induced ER stress and SREBP-2 pathway activation in the liver of newborn PEX2 knock-out mice

Disruption of the Pex2 gene leads to peroxisome deficiency and widespread metabolic dysfunction. We previously demonstrated that peroxisomes are critical for maintaining cholesterol homeostasis, using peroxisome-deficient Pex2^−/− mice on a hybrid Swiss Webster × 129S6/SvEv (SW/129) genetic background. Peroxisome deficiency activates hepatic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathways, leading to dysregulation of the endogenous sterol response mechanism. Herein, we demonstrate a more profound dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis in newborn Pex2^−/− mice congenic on a 129S6/SvEv (129) genetic background, and substantial differences between newborn versus postnatal Pex2^−/− mice in factors that activate ER stress. These differences extend to relationships between activation of genes regulated by SREBP-2 versus PPARα. The SREBP-2 pathway is induced in neonatal Pex2^−/− livers from 129 and SW/129 strains, despite normal hepatic cholesterol levels. ER stress markers are increased in newborn 129 Pex2^−/− livers, which occurs in the absence of hepatic steatosis or accumulation of peroxins in the ER. Moreover, the induction of SREBP-2 and ER stress pathways is independent of PPARα activation in livers of newborn 129 and SW/129 Pex2^−/− mice. Two-week-old wild-type mice treated with the peroxisome proliferator WY-14,643 show strong induction of PPARα-regulated genes and decreased expression of SREBP-2 and its target genes, further demonstrating that SREBP-2 pathway induction is not dependent on PPARα activation. Lastly, there is no activation of either SREBP-2 or ER stress pathways in kidney and lung of newborn Pex2^−/− mice, suggesting a parallel induction of these pathways in peroxisome-deficient mice. These findings establish novel associations between SREBP-2, ER stress and PPARα pathway inductions.