Nosocomial lung infections in adult intensive care units

Nosocomial respiratory tract infections are the leading type of nosocomial infections. Despite the development of new antibiotic therapies, they are associated with an increased morbidity and mortality. Patients with comorbidities are especially predisposed to acquire these infections, as are patients exposed to respiratory therapy. Aspiration of colonized secretions from the oropharynx is the main mechanism of infection development. Barrier techniques to reduce aspiration and antimicrobial agents to alter bacterial flora are important in preventing pneumonia episodes. The initial institution of an adequate antibiotic regimen is a determinant of outcome. Nosocomial pneumonias are often difficult to treat due to antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic policies are crucial in avoiding a progression in antibiotic resistance.     

Nosocomial infections and risk factors in intensive care units

The present study was performed to describe the incidence and risk factors for nosocomial infections (NIs) in the intensive care units of a University hospital. From January to July 2002, 454 patients from Medical and Surgical Intensive Care Unit (MICU and SICU) were observed in the active, targeted, prospective surveillance study. Risk factors for NIs were found by logistic regression analysis. Two hundred and eighteen NIs were recorded in 149 of 454 screened patients. The overall incidence rate was calculated as 33% in the ICUs. The incidence was 39% in MICU and 29% in SICU. The most frequent nosocomial infection observed in MICU, and SICU was pneumonia (42%), and surgical wound infection (31%), respectively. Extrinsic risk factors were urinary catheter, mechanical ventilation, total parenteral nutrition, entubation, antimicrobial treatment prior to the NI, nasogastric cathater and central catheter. The highest intrinsic risk factor was unconsciousness in MICU, respiratory failure in SICU. This high NI rates may be reduced by timely feedback of data for infection control activities. The recognition of risk factors for NIs is an important tool for the identification and development of interventions to minimize such risks in the ICU's.     

Radiologic assessment in the pediatric intensive care unit.

The severely ill infant or child who requires admission to a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) often presents with a complex set of problems necessitating multiple and frequent management decisions. Diagnostic imaging plays an important role, not only in the initial assessment of the patient''s condition and establishing a diagnosis, but also in monitoring the patient''s progress and the effects of interventional therapeutic measures. Bedside studies obtained using portable equipment are often limited but can provide much useful information when a careful and detailed approach is utilized in producing the radiograph and interpreting the examination. This article reviews some of the basic principles of radiographic interpretation and details some of the diagnostic points which, when promptly recognized, can lead to a better understanding of the patient''s condition and thus to improved patient care and management. While chest radiography is stressed, studies of other regions including the upper airway, abdomen, skull, and extremities are discussed. A brief consideration of the expanding role of new modality imaging (i.e., ultrasound, CT) is also included. Multiple illustrative examples of common and uncommon problems are shown.     

Respiratory nosocomial infections in the medical intensive care unit

Intensive care unit (ICU)-acquired lower respiratory tract infections include acute tracheobronchitis and hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). Nosocomial pneumonia is the second most common hospital-acquired infection and the leading cause of death in hospital-acquired infections. The mortality rate in VAP ranges from 24% to 76% in several studies. ICU ventilated patients with VAP have a 2- to 10-fold higher risk of death than patients without it. Early oropharyngeal colonization is pivotal in the etiopathogenesis of VAP. The knowledge of risk factors for VAP is important in developing effective preventive programs. Once the physician decides to treat a suspected episode of ICU-acquired pneumonia, some issues should be kept on mind: first, the adequacy of the initial empiric antibiotic therapy; second, the modification of initial inadequate therapy according to microbiological results; third, the benefit of combination therapy; and finally, the duration of the antimicrobial treatment. Additionally, a protocolized work-up to identify the causes of non-response to treatment is mandatory. All these issues are discussed in depth in this article.     

Psychiatric aspects of a pediatric intensive care unit

Although there is a growing body of literature about the medical problems which arise in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), rather little has been written about psychiatric issues characteristic of the critical care setting for children. This article will describe the PICU as a community made up of several sub-groups, the various psychosocial stresses, the reactions to stresses, and the interventions appropriate for the PICU and each of its sub-groups.     

Respiratory viruses in the pediatric intensive care unit: prevalence and clinical aspects

A survey was conducted in two pediatric intensive care units in hospitals in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in order to monitor the main respiratory viruses present in bronchiolitis and/or pneumonia and their involvement in the severity of viral respiratory infections. Viral respiratory infection prevalence was 38.7%. In bronchiolitis, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) was detected in 36% of the cases. In pneumonia, the prevalence rates were similar for adenovirus (10.3%) and RSV (7.7%). There was a difference among the viruses detected in terms of frequency of clinical findings indicating greater severity. Frequency of crackles in patients with RSV (47.3%) showed a borderline significance (p = 0.055, Fisher's exact test) as compared to those with adenovirus (87.5%). The overall case fatality rate in this study was 2.7%, and adenovirus showed a significantly higher case fatality rate (25%) than RSV (2.8%) (p = 0.005). Injected antibiotics were used in 49% of the children with RSV and 60% of those with adenovirus. Adenovirus was not detected in any of the 33 children submitted to oxygen therapy.     

Quantitative quality assurance in a community hospital pediatric intensive care unit.

Unbiased, objective evaluations of quality of care are preferred over subjective evaluations. We observed 681 admissions to a pediatric intensive care unit of a community hospital from 1989 through 1990 for outcomes and physiologic profiles of the patients on the admission day using the Pediatric Risk of Mortality score to assess severity of illness. Mortality adjusted for severity of illness was compared with that predicted from a pediatric intensive care unit of a tertiary medical center: 32.6 deaths were predicted based on the physiologic profiles, and 23 occurred. The number of outcomes and their distribution according to mortality risk indicated close agreement between observed and predicted results. Thus, a quality-assurance technique developed in tertiary care centers can be used to indicate a comparable level of care in a community hospital.     

革兰阴性菌在儿科重症监护病房的分布及耐药性分析

目的分析儿科重症监护病房(PICU)常见革兰阴性(G~-)菌的分布特点及其对常用抗菌药物的耐药性情况,为合理使用抗生素提供参考。方法回顾性分析重庆医科大学附属儿童医院重症医学科2013年1月至2015年2月临床分离的213株G~-菌进行耐药性分析。结果经培养共分离出的213株G~-菌,以呼吸道来源为主,占64.8%。常见G~-菌为铜绿假单胞菌、大肠埃希菌、鲍曼不动杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、阴沟肠杆菌、嗜麦芽黄单胞菌。药敏结果显示细菌耐药性明显增强,阴沟肠杆菌、大肠埃希菌、肺炎克雷伯菌肺炎亚种对美洛培南、亚胺培南敏感率为100.0%,对环丙沙星、左旋氧氟沙星、阿米卡星敏感性在70.3%以上;超广谱β-内酰胺酶(ESBLs)菌株检出率在76.7%以上。铜绿假单胞菌仅对环丙沙星、左旋氧氟沙星、庆大霉素、阿米卡星、多粘菌素敏高度感度,敏感度在87.0%以上。鲍曼不动杆菌对美洛培南、亚胺培南、环丙沙星、左旋氧氟沙星、庆大霉素、阿米卡星、头孢吡肟、头孢他啶相对敏感,敏感度在53.3%~73.3%;ESBLs检出率为76.7%。嗜麦芽黄单胞菌仅对左旋氧氟沙星、环丙沙星、复方新诺明相对敏感,敏感度在53.3%~73.3%,对美洛培南、亚胺培南100.0%耐药。结论 G~-菌耐药日趋严重,多为多重耐药。为避免耐药率上升,临床应合理使用抗生素。     

Muscle glutamine depletion in the intensive care unit

Glutamine is primarily synthesized in skeletal muscle and enables transfer of nitrogen to splanchnic tissues, kidneys and immune system. Discrepancy between increasing rates of glutamine utilization at whole body level and relative impairment of de novo synthesis in skeletal muscle leads to systemic glutamine deficiency and characterizes critical illness. Glutamine depletion at whole body level may contribute to gut, liver and immune system disfunctions, whereas its intramuscular deficiency may directly contribute to lean body mass loss. Severe intramuscular glutamine depletion also develops because of outward transport system upregulation, which is not counteracted by increased de novo synthesis. The negative impact of systemic glutamine depletion on critically ill patients is suggested both by the association between a lower plasma glutamine concentration and poor outcome and by a clear clinical benefit after glutamine supplementation. Enteral glutamine administration preferentially increases glutamine disposal in splanchnic tissues, whereas parenteral supplementation provides glutamine to the whole organism. Nonetheless, systemic administration was ineffective in preventing muscle depletion, due to a relative inability of skeletal muscle to seize glutamine from the bloodstream. Intramuscular glutamine depletion could be potentially counteracted by promoting de novo glutamine synthesis with pharmacological or nutritional interventions.     

儿童ICU与普通病房铜绿假单胞菌分布及耐药性分析

目的了解铜绿假单胞菌在儿童重症监护病房（ICU）与普通病房的分布及耐药性差异,为临床合理、有效的治疗提供依据。方法分析重庆医科大学附属儿童医院2013年1月至2013年12月ICU及普通病房铜绿假单胞菌培养阳性患儿的年龄分布、菌株来源、抗菌药物的耐药性。结果 ICU和普通病房分别分离出82株和429株铜绿假单胞菌,年龄均小于2岁（70.73%和69.23%）,以痰标本来源（80.49%和64.80%）为主。ICU分离的铜绿假单胞菌对氟喹诺酮类药物的耐药率低于普通病房,对其余测试药物的耐药率均高于普通病房。ICU分离的铜绿假单胞菌中多重耐药菌55株（67.07%）,泛耐药菌44株（53.66%）,均明显高于普通病房（26.81%,3.26%）（P〈0.05）。结论铜绿假单胞菌是ICU常见的病原菌,具有多重耐药特性,加强耐药性监测,控制医院内感染,对临床医生选用有效的抗生素具有十分重要的意义。     

Hypothermia in a surgical intensive care unit

Background

Inadvertent hypothermia is not uncommon in the immediate postoperative period and it is associated with impairment and abnormalities in various organs and systems that can lead to adverse outcomes. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence, the predictive factors and outcome of core hypothermia on admission to a surgical ICU.

Methods

All consecutive 185 adult patients who underwent scheduled or emergency noncardiac surgery admitted to a surgical ICU between April and July 2004 were admitted to the study. Tympanic membrane core temperature (Tc) was measured before surgery, on arrival at ICU and every two hours until 6 hours after admission. The following variables were also recorded: age, sex, body weight and height, ASA physical status, type of surgery, magnitude of surgical procedure, anesthesia technique, amount of intravenous fluids administered during anesthesia, use of temperature monitoring and warming techniques, duration of the anesthesia, ICU length of stay, hospital length of stay and SAPS II score. Patients were classified as either hypothermic (Tc ≤ 35°C) or normothermic (Tc> 35°C). Univariate analysis and multiple regression binary logistic with an odds ratio (OR) and its 95% Confidence Interval (95%CI) were used to compare the two groups of patients and assess the relationship between each clinical predictor and hypothermia. Outcome measured as ICU length of stay and mortality was also assessed.

Results

Prevalence of hypothermia on ICU admission was 57.8%. In univariate analysis temperature monitoring, use of warming techniques and higher previous body temperature were significant protective factors against core hypothermia. In this analysis independent predictors of hypothermia on admission to ICU were: magnitude of surgery, use of general anesthesia or combined epidural and general anesthesia, total intravenous crystalloids administrated and total packed erythrocytes administrated, anesthesia longer than 3 hours and SAPS II scores. In multiple logistic regression analysis significant predictors of hypothermia on admission to the ICU were magnitude of surgery (OR 3.9, 95% CI, 1.4–10.6, p = 0.008 for major surgery; OR 3.6, 95% CI, 1.5–9.0, p = 0.005 for medium surgery), intravenous administration of crystalloids (in litres) (OR 1.4, 95% CI, 1.1–1.7, p = 0.012) and SAPS score (OR 1.0, 95% CI 1.0–1.7, p = 0.014); higher previous temperature in ward was a significant protective factor (OR 0.3, 95% CI 0.1–0.7, p = 0.003). Hypothermia was neither a risk factor for hospital mortality nor a predictive factor for staying longer in ICU.

Conclusion

The prevalence of patient hypothermia on ICU arrival was high. Hypothermia at time of admission to the ICU was not an independent factor for mortality or for staying longer in ICU.     

Reflections on neonatal intensive care unit

This article reflects on twelve years spent on a regional neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The trials and tribulations experienced by parents and staff alike are described together with some of the initiatives developed to mitigate the effects of these. High standards of medical and nursing care, environmental conditions, good communications and a multi-disciplinary approach are all identified as crucial in giving holistic care to the neonate. Finally, the involvement of the professional team is recognised as transient but key in developing in the parents both competence and confidence in their roles for the future.     

Prophylaxis for Candida in the intensive care unit patient

Candidemia is one of the most frequent causes of bloodstream infections in intensive care units in the United States and the developed world. It involves a substantial morbidity, crude/attributable mortality, and increased health care costs in excess of an average of $40,000 per episode. Prophylaxis is one of many strategies to control this disease; however, the success of this strategy is directly related to the selection of populations at highest risk and the availability of safe, effective, and economical drugs. Current risk assessment strategies based on clinical prediction rules offer the possibility of targeted prophylaxis, making this approach even more attractive.