中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网在真菌感染免疫中的研究进展

中性粒细胞除了吞噬清除病原体外,还可形成中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网(neutrophil extracellular trap, NET),这些纤维由染色质组成,染色质装饰有抗菌蛋白以捕获和杀死真菌这类难以吞噬的大型病原体。大量研究表明这种中性粒细胞功能与控制多种真菌感染有显著相关性。本文介绍了NET的形成机制及其作为固有免疫防御的一部分在真菌感染免疫中的研究进展。     

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网与肺部炎症性疾病的关系

中性粒细胞募集/浸润是肺部炎症性疾病的特征性表现,是肺部抵抗病原微生物入侵的第一道防线,主要通过吞噬作用杀灭病原微生物.然而,新近的研究发现,中性粒细胞被刺激后可形成一种以DNA为骨架并镶嵌有大量活性蛋白质的网状物质——中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网(neutrophil extracellular traps,NETs),这种特殊形式的生物结构能捕获并杀灭病原微生物.尽管就NETs的生物学功能而言,其对肺部炎症性疾病应该是有益的,但是越来越多的研究表明,NETs对肺上皮细胞和内皮细胞均具有直接的细胞毒性作用,并可能促进肺部炎症性疾病的发生发展.为了系统地了解NETs与肺部相关炎症性疾病的关系,本综述首先简述了NETs的结构、功能和形成过程,然后分别叙述了NETs与哮喘、慢性阻塞性肺病、细菌性肺炎、肺结核、肺囊性纤维化、间质性肺疾病、流感病毒感染和急性肺损伤的关系.最后总结、展望了NETs在肺部炎症性疾病中的潜在研究方向和针对性治疗策略.     

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网和血栓形成的研究进展

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网是由DNA骨架、组蛋白、颗粒成分以及胞浆蛋白组成的网状物,它通过捕获致病微生物,抑制其扩散、灭活毒力因子以及清除病原体来发挥抗菌活性,中性粒细胞这种与其经典的趋化、吞噬作用不同的胞外杀菌方式发挥着重要的固有免疫应答作用。然而,中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网的产生是一把双刃剑。近年来有研究表明它可以导致凝血异常、刺激血栓形成并为其提供支架,但这一过程的机制并不十分清楚,可能与中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网的促凝活性以及凝血级联反应的激活有关。本文将就中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网及其与血栓形成之间关系的研究进展做一综述。     

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网与子痫前期

子痫前期与母体先天免疫系统过度激活有关.激活的循环中性粒细胞形成细胞外诱捕网(neutrophil extracellular traps,NETs).NETs由染色质-DNA、抗微生物肽和抗微生物酶构成,具有捕获与杀灭微生物的作用.中性粒细胞形成NETs是先天免疫应答机制之一.胎盘衍生因子IL-8和合体滋养细胞微粒激活循环中性粒细胞并产生NETs.子痫前期NETs含量增加提示NETs与子痫前期病因有关.     

细胞外诱捕网介导的抗微生物途径

活化中性粒细胞与肥大细胞在细胞外形成纤维样诱捕网结构（ETs）。ETs以染色质-DNA为骨架,吸附有抗微生物肽和抗微生物酶组成,具有捕获与杀灭微生物的作用。由ETs介导的抗微生物途径构成了一种重要的先天免疫应答机制。     

病原体逃逸中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网机制

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网（NETs）是新发现的中性粒细胞抗病原机制,是天然免疫系统的重要组成部分。但病原体在进化中形成了针对NETs的免疫逃逸机制。不同的病原体逃逸NET的机制不同,本文主要介绍3种机制：降解NETs-DNA、表面分子机制和NETosis调控。     

PAD4参与中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网的抗菌作用

蛋白质精氨酸脱亚氨酶4(PAD4)是中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网(NET)介导的细菌杀灭途径中的重要免疫因子。PAD4催化组蛋白瓜氨酸化,促进细菌感染期中性粒细胞形成NET。PAD4/中性粒细胞在炎性因子或细菌作用下不能形成NET,PAD4/鼠相对于PAD4+/+鼠更易受细菌感染。     

临床型乳房炎奶牛与健康奶牛嗜中性粒细胞差异蛋白质组的表达分析

嗜中性粒细胞是防止病原入侵的第一道防线,且已有研究表明嗜中性粒细胞在奶牛乳腺免疫中发挥着关键作用。文章运用双向凝胶电泳方法对临床型乳房炎奶牛与健康奶牛嗜中性粒细胞差异表达蛋白质组进行分析,成功获得分辨率较高、重复性较好的奶牛嗜中性粒细胞双向电泳凝胶图谱,并通过MALDI-TOF MS鉴定获得差异表达的蛋白质7种,主要涉及细胞代谢、氧化应激、炎症反应等相关蛋白通路。实验获得的临床型乳房炎奶牛与健康奶牛嗜中性粒细胞差异表达蛋白有望为今后奶牛乳房炎的抗病育种研究提供理论依据。     

细胞自噬对中性粒细胞功能调节的研究进展

细胞自噬是一种进化上高度保守的胞内降解系统,旨在实现维持细胞稳态以应对不同的细胞应激。在生理状态下,细胞自噬水平通常较低;而在氧化应激、营养饥饿和各种病原体刺激下会显著上调。过去的许多研究都表明细胞自噬在多种组织细胞和生理功能调控中有重要意义。早期研究发现了细胞自噬和中性粒细胞死亡之间的联系,这是与炎症密切关联的必要过程。在人类系统和小鼠模型中表明,细胞自噬在中性粒细胞驱动的炎症和防御病原体方面起着至关重要的作用。细胞自噬对中性粒细胞主要功能的发挥至关重要,包括脱颗粒、活性氧产生和中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网的释放。细胞自噬对中性粒细胞分化以及主要功能(包括脱颗粒、活性氧产生和中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网的释放)的发挥至关重要。集中讨论了细胞自噬对中性粒细胞的作用,即从中性粒细胞在骨髓中产生到炎症反应和NETosis细胞死亡。     

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网在相关疾病中的作用

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网(neutrophil extracellular traps,NETs)是中性粒细胞在受到特殊因素影响后释放到细胞外的一种纤维网状复合物。在病毒、细胞因子、活化血小板、补体、自身抗体等因子的诱导下,特定的中性粒细胞亚群产生并释放NETs,NETs在体内发挥多种作用,参与心血管疾病、代谢性疾病、自身免疫性疾病等多种疾病的发展,也与相关非感染性病理过程如凝血障碍、血栓形成、动脉粥样硬化、血管炎等有密切关系。因而在相关疾病中控制NETs的发生和发展可能是潜在的疾病治疗靶点。该文总结了NETs在代谢性疾病、肿瘤和新型冠状病毒感染等相关疾病中的影响,探讨了抗NETs药物的临床应用,以期为临床药物选择和应用提供新思路。     

Beneficial suicide: why neutrophils die to make NETs

Neutrophils are one of the main types of effector cell in the innate immune system and were first shown to effectively kill microorganisms by phagocytosis more than 100 years ago. Recently, however, it has been found that stimulated neutrophils can also produce extracellular structures called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that capture and kill microorganisms. This Progress article gives an overview of the structure, function and generation of NETs, and their role in infections.     

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps: How to Generate and Visualize Them

Neutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant group of leukocytes in the peripheral blood. As professional phagocytes, they engulf bacteria and kill them intracellularly when their antimicrobial granules fuse with the phagosome. We found that neutrophils have an additional way of killing microorganisms: upon activation, they release granule proteins and chromatin that together form extracellular fibers that bind pathogens. These novel structures, or Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs), degrade virulence factors and kill bacteria¹, fungi² and parasites³. The structural backbone of NETs is DNA, and they are quickly degraded in the presence of DNases. Thus, bacteria expressing DNases are more virulent⁴. Using correlative microscopy combining TEM, SEM, immunofluorescence and live cell imaging techniques, we could show that upon stimulation, the nuclei of neutrophils lose their shape and the eu- and heterochromatin homogenize. Later, the nuclear envelope and the granule membranes disintegrate allowing the mixing of NET components. Finally, the NETs are released as the cell membrane breaks. This cell death program (NETosis) is distinct from apoptosis and necrosis and depends on the generation of Reactive Oxygen Species by NADPH oxidase⁵. Neutrophil extracellular traps are abundant at sites of acute inflammation. NETs appear to be a form of innate immune response that bind microorganisms, prevent them from spreading, and ensure a high local concentration of antimicrobial agents to degrade virulence factors and kill pathogens thus allowing neutrophils to fulfill their antimicrobial function even beyond their life span. There is increasing evidence, however, that NETs are also involved in diseases that range from auto-immune syndromes to infertility⁶.We describe methods to isolate Neutrophil Granulocytes from peripheral human blood⁷ and stimulate them to form NETs. Also we include protocols to visualize the NETs in light and electron microscopy.     

Extracellular traps are associated with human and mouse neutrophil and macrophage mediated killing of larval Strongyloides stercoralis

Neutrophils are multifaceted cells that are often the immune system's first line of defense. Human and murine cells release extracellular DNA traps (ETs) in response to several pathogens and diseases. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation is crucial to trapping and killing extracellular pathogens. Aside from neutrophils, macrophages and eosinophils also release ETs. We hypothesized that ETs serve as a mechanism of ensnaring the large and highly motile helminth parasite Strongyloides stercoralis thereby providing a static target for the immune response. We demonstrated that S. stercoralis larvae trigger the release of ETs by human neutrophils and macrophages. Analysis of NETs revealed that NETs trapped but did not kill larvae. Induction of NETs was essential for larval killing by human but not murine neutrophils and macrophages in vitro. In mice, extracellular traps were induced following infection with S. stercoralis larvae and were present in the microenvironment of worms being killed in vivo. These findings demonstrate that NETs ensnare the parasite facilitating larval killing by cells of the immune system.     

Cytokines Induced Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Formation: Implication for the Inflammatory Disease Condition

Neutrophils (PMNs) and cytokines have a critical role to play in host defense and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been shown to extracellularly kill pathogens, and inflammatory potential of NETs has been shown. Microbial killing inside the phagosomes or by NETs is mediated by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS). The present study was undertaken to assess circulating NETs contents and frequency of NETs generation by isolated PMNs from SIRS patients. These patients displayed significant augmentation in the circulating myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and DNA content, while PMA stimulated PMNs from these patients, generated more free radicals and NETs. Plasma obtained from SIRS patients, if added to the PMNs isolated from healthy subjects, enhanced NETs release and free radical formation. Expressions of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα and IL-8) in the PMNs as well as their circulating levels were significantly augmented in SIRS subjects. Treatment of neutrophils from healthy subjects with TNFα, IL-1β, or IL-8 enhanced free radicals generation and NETs formation, which was mediated through the activation of NADPH oxidase and MPO. Pre-incubation of plasma from SIRS with TNFα, IL-1β, or IL-8 antibodies reduced the NETs release. Role of IL-1β, TNFα and IL-8 thus seems to be involved in the enhanced release of NETs in SIRS subjects.     

NETs formed by human neutrophils inhibit growth of the pathogenic mold Aspergillus fumigatus

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) represent a distinct mechanism to control and eliminate microbial infections. Our results show that conidia and germ tubes of the human pathogenic mold Aspergillus fumigatus are able to trigger the formation of NETs. Viable fungal cells are not essentially required for this host–pathogen interaction. Neutrophils engulf conidia and thereby inhibit their germination, a process that is independent of NETosis. In the experimental set-up used in this study neutrophils do not kill germ tubes, but reduce their polar growth and this inhibition depends on NETs as it can be overcome by the addition of DNase-1. The Zn²⁺ chelator calprotectin is associated with the Aspergillus-induced NETs and addition of Zn²⁺ abrogates the NET-mediated growth inhibition. In summary, our data provide evidence that NETs are not sufficient to kill A. fumigatus, but might be a valuable tool to confine infection.     

T lymphocyte priming by neutrophil extracellular traps links innate and adaptive immune responses

Polymorphonuclear neutrophils constitute the first line of defense against infections. Among their strategies to eliminate pathogens they release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), being chromatin fibers decorated with antimicrobial proteins. NETs trap and kill pathogens very efficiently, thereby minimizing tissue damage. Furthermore, NETs modulate inflammatory responses by activating plasmacytoid dendritic cells. In this study, we show that NETs released by human neutrophils can directly prime T cells by reducing their activation threshold. NETs-mediated priming increases T cell responses to specific Ags and even to suboptimal stimuli, which would not induce a response in resting T cells. T cell priming mediated by NETs requires NETs/cell contact and TCR signaling, but unexpectedly we could not demonstrate a role of TLR9 in this mechanism. NETs-mediated T cell activation adds to the list of neutrophil functions and demonstrates a novel link between innate and adaptive immune responses.     

NETosis occurs independently of neutrophil serine proteases

Neutrophils are primary host innate immune cells defending against pathogens. One proposed mechanism by which neutrophils prevent the spread of pathogens is NETosis, the extrusion of cellular DNA resulting in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). The protease neutrophil elastase (NE) has been implicated in the formation of NETs through proteolysis of nuclear proteins leading to chromatin decondensation. In addition to NE, neutrophils contain three other serine proteases that could compensate if the activity of NE was neutralized. However, whether they do play such a role is unknown. Thus, we deployed recently described specific inhibitors against all four of the neutrophil serine proteases (NSPs). Using specific antibodies to the NSPs along with our labeled inhibitors, we show that catalytic activity of these enzymes is not required for the formation of NETs. Moreover, the NSPs that decorate NETs are in an inactive conformation and thus cannot participate in further catalytic events. These results indicate that NSPs play no role in either NETosis or arming NETs with proteolytic activity.     

Amyloid Fibrils Trigger the Release of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs), Causing Fibril Fragmentation by NET-associated Elastase

The accumulation of amyloid fibrils is a feature of amyloid diseases, where cell toxicity is due to soluble oligomeric species that precede fibril formation or are formed by fibril fragmentation, but the mechanism(s) of fragmentation is still unclear. Neutrophil-derived elastase and histones were found in amyloid deposits from patients with different systemic amyloidoses. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are key players in a death mechanism in which neutrophils release DNA traps decorated with proteins such as elastase and histones to entangle pathogens. Here, we asked whether NETs are triggered by amyloid fibrils, reasoning that because proteases are present in NETs, protease digestion of amyloid may generate soluble, cytotoxic species. We show that amyloid fibrils from three different sources (α-synuclein, Sup35, and transthyretin) induced NADPH oxidase-dependent NETs in vitro from human neutrophils. Surprisingly, NET-associated elastase digested amyloid fibrils into short species that were cytotoxic for BHK-21 and HepG2 cells. In tissue sections from patients with primary amyloidosis, we also observed the co-localization of NETs with amyloid deposits as well as with oligomers, which are probably derived from elastase-induced fibril degradation (amyloidolysis). These data reveal that release of NETs, so far described to be elicited by pathogens, can also be triggered by amyloid fibrils. Moreover, the involvement of NETs in amyloidoses might be crucial for the production of toxic species derived from fibril fragmentation.     

Defining a pro‐inflammatory neutrophil phenotype in response to schistosome eggs

Neutrophils contribute to the pathological processes of a number of inflammatory disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis, sepsis and cystic fibrosis. Neutrophils also play prominent roles in schistosomiasis japonica liver fibrosis, being central mediators of inflammation following granuloma formation. In this study, we investigated the interaction between Schistosoma japonicum eggs and neutrophils, and the effect of eggs on the inflammatory phenotype of neutrophils. Our results showed significant upregulated expression of pro‐inflammatory cytokines (IL‐1α, IL‐1β and IL‐8) and chemokines (CCL3, CCL4 and CXCL2) in neutrophils after 4 h in vitro stimulation with S. japonicum eggs. Furthermore, mitochondrial DNA was released by stimulated neutrophils, and induced the production of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP‐9), a protease involved in inflammation and associated tissue destruction. We also found that intact live eggs and isolated soluble egg antigen (SEA) triggered the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), but, unlike those reported in bacterial or fungal infection, NETs did not kill schistosome eggs in vitro. Together these show that S. japonicum eggs can induce the inflammatory phenotype of neutrophils, and further our understanding of the host–parasite interplay that takes place within the in vivo microenvironment of schistosome‐induced granuloma. These findings represent novel findings in a metazoan parasite, and confirm characteristics of NETs that have until now, only been observed in response to protozoan pathogens.