Biotransformation of tryptamine and secologanin into plant terpenoid indole alkaloids by transgenic yeast

A transgenic Saccharomyces cerevisiae was constructed containing the cDNAs coding for strictosidine synthase (STR) and strictosidine beta-glucosidase (SGD) from the medicinal plant Catharanthus roseus. Both enzymes are involved in the biosynthesis of terpenoid indole alkaloids. The yeast culture was found to express high levels of both enzymes. STR activity was found both inside the cells (13.2 nkatal/g fresh weight) and in the medium (up to 25 nkatal/l medium), whereas SGD activity was present only inside the yeast cells (2.5 mkatal/g fresh weight). Upon feeding of tryptamine and secologanin, this transgenic yeast culture produced high levels of strictosidine in the medium; levels up to 2 g/l were measured. Inside the yeast cells strictosidine was also detected, although in much lower amounts (0.2 mg/g cells). This was due to the low permeability of the cells towards the substrates, secologanin and tryptamine. However, the strictosidine present in the medium was completely hydrolyzed to cathenamine, after permeabilizing the yeast cells. Furthermore, transgenic S. cerevisiae was able to grow on an extract of Symphoricarpus albus berries serving as a source for secologanin and carbohydrates. Under these conditions, the addition of tryptamine was sufficient for the transgenic yeast culture to produce indole alkaloids. Our results show that transgenic yeast cultures are an interesting alternative for the production of plant alkaloids.     

Three New O-Methyltransferases Are Sufficient for All O-Methylation Reactions of Ipecac Alkaloid Biosynthesis in Root Culture of Psychotria ipecacuanha

The medicinal plant Psychotria ipecacuanha produces ipecac alkaloids, a series of monoterpenoid-isoquinoline alkaloids such as emetine and cephaeline, whose biosynthesis derives from condensation of dopamine and secologanin. Here, we identified three cDNAs, IpeOMT1–IpeOMT3, encoding ipecac alkaloid O-methyltransferases (OMTs) from P. ipecacuanha. They were coordinately transcribed with the recently identified ipecac alkaloid β-glucosidase Ipeglu1. Their amino acid sequences were closely related to each other and rather to the flavonoid OMTs than to the OMTs involved in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis. Characterization of the recombinant IpeOMT enzymes with integration of the enzymatic properties of the IpeGlu1 revealed that emetine biosynthesis branches off from N-deacetylisoipecoside through its 6-O-methylation by IpeOMT1, with a minor contribution by IpeOMT2, followed by deglucosylation by IpeGlu1. The 7-hydroxy group of the isoquinoline skeleton of the aglycon is methylated by IpeOMT3 prior to the formation of protoemetine that is condensed with a second dopamine molecule, followed by sequential O-methylations by IpeOMT2 and IpeOMT1 to form cephaeline and emetine, respectively. In addition to this central pathway of ipecac alkaloid biosynthesis, formation of all methyl derivatives of ipecac alkaloids in P. ipecacuanha could be explained by the enzymatic activities of IpeOMT1–IpeOMT3, indicating that they are sufficient for all O-methylation reactions of ipecac alkaloid biosynthesis.     

Molecular cloning of an O-methyltransferase from adventitious roots of Carapichea ipecacuanha

Carapichea ipecacuanha produces various emetine-type alkaloids, known as ipecac alkaloids, which have long been used as expectorants, emetics, and amebicides. In this study, we isolated an O-methyltransferase cDNA from this medicinal plant. The encoded protein (CiOMT1) showed 98% sequence identity to IpeOMT2, which catalyzes the 7'-O-methylation of 7'-O-demethylcephaeline to form cephaeline at the penultimate step of emetine biosynthesis (Nomura and Kutchan, J. Biol. Chem., 285, 7722-7738 (2010)). Recombinant CiOMT1 showed both 7'-O-methylation and 6'-O-methylation activities at the last two steps of emetine biosynthesis. This indicates that small differences in amino acid residues are responsible for distinct regional methylation specificities between IpeOMT2 and CiOMT1, and that CiOMT1 might contribute to two sequential O-methylation steps from 7'-O-demethylcephaeline to emetine.     

Influence of Precursor Availability on Alkaloid Accumulation by Transgenic Cell Line of Catharanthus roseus

We have used a transgenic cell line of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don to study the relative importance of the supply of biosynthetic precursors for the synthesis of terpenoid indole alkaloids. Line S10 carries a recombinant, constitutively overexpressed version of the endogenous strictosidine synthase (Str) gene. Various concentrations and combinations of the substrate tryptamine and of loganin, the immediate precursor of secologanin, were added to suspension cultures of S10. Our results indicate that high rates of tryptamine synthesis can take place under conditions of low tryptophan decarboxylase activity, and that high rates of strictosidine synthesis are possible in the presence of a small tryptamine pool. It appears that the utilization of tryptamine for alkaloid biosynthesis enhances metabolic flux through the indole pathway. However, a deficiency in the supply of either the iridoid or the indole precursor can limit flux through the step catalyzed by strictosidine synthase. Precursor utilization for the synthesis of strictosidine depends on the availability of the cosubstrate; the relative abundance of these precursors is a cell-line-specific trait that reflects the metabolic status of the cultures.     

Dopamine-iridoid alkaloids in Carapichea affinis (= Psychotria borucana) confirm close relationship to the vomiting root Ipecac

Broad-based HPLC-UV comparison of 57 methanolic crude extracts of the Psychotria complex (Rubiaceae), representing about 20 different species collected in Costa Rica, exhibited a clear chemical segregation of Psychotria borucana. In contrast to the more widespread tryptamine-iridoid alkaloids it deviated by an accumulation of dopamine-iridoid alkaloids. Similar to the South American vomiting root Ipecac, Psychotria ipecacuanha (= Cephaelis ipecacuanha), cephaeline and emetine were found together with four related glycosides characterized by various N-acylations. Two glycosides were identified as the known N-acetates ipecoside and 6-O-methylipecoside, whereas the two others represent corresponding N-O-methylcaffeate derivatives from which borucoside was described as a new compound. Structure elucidation of all compounds was carried out by NMR- and MS-analyses supported by CSEARCH-NMR-database system. In addition to morphological characters and analyses of nucleotide sequence variation the chemical profile of P. borucana supported a recent taxonomic rearrangement where it has been grouped together with P. ipecacuanha in a separate genus Carapichea.     

Alkaloid formation in cell suspension cultures of Tabernaemontana elegans after feeding of tryptamine and loganin or secologanin

A cell suspension culture of Tabernaemontana elegans lost its ability to produce alkaloids after a prolonged period of subculture. To determine whether it was still capable of performing the later steps of the alkaloid biosynthetic pathway, the culture was fed with tryptamine and loganin. The precursors and alkaloids were determined in the biomass and in the medium during a growth cycle. In this culture, an increase in the amount of serotonin was found in the biomass after feeding of tryptamine and loganin. Secologanin was detected in small amounts but strictosidine was not. Therefore, a limitation in alkaloid formation in this T. elegans cell line occured in the formation of secologanin from loganin. After feeding of secologanin alone, strictosidine, 10-hydroxy strictosidine, strictosidinic acid and two other indole alkaloids, as yet unidentified, were formed. However, the alkaloids originally produced by this cell line were not found. As the biosynthesis is impaired at several steps, it seems that the loss of productivity is more likely to be to a change on the level of the regulation of the pathway, than due to the loss of the capacity to express an individual biosynthetic gene of the pathway.     

Localization of tabersonine 16-hydroxylase and 16-OH tabersonine-16-O-methyltransferase to leaf epidermal cells defines them as a major site of precursor biosynthesis in the vindoline pathway in Catharanthus roseus

The Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) produces the well known and remarkably complex anticancer dimeric alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine, which are derived by the coupling of vindoline and catharanthine monomers. Recent data from in situ RNA hybridization and immunolocalization suggest that combinatorial cell factories within the leaf are involved in vindoline biosynthesis. In this study, the cell types responsible for vindoline biosynthesis were identified by laser-capture microdissection/RNA isolation/RT-PCR to show that geraniol hydroxylase, secologanin synthase, tryptophan decarboxylase, strictosidine synthase, strictosidine ss-glucosidase and tabersonine 16-hydroxylase can be detected preferentially in epidermal cells. A new and complementary application of the carborundum abrasion (CA) technique was developed to obtain epidermis-enriched leaf extracts that can be used to measure alkaloid metabolite levels, enzyme activities and gene expression. The CA technique showed that tabersonine and 16-methoxytabersonine, together with 16-hydroxytabersonine-16-O-methyltransferase, are found predominantly in Catharanthus leaf epidermis, in contrast to vindoline, catharanthine and later enzymatic steps in vindoline biosynthesis. The results show that leaf epidermal cells are biosynthetically competent to produce tryptamine and secologanin precursors that are converted via many enzymatic transformations to make 16-methoxytabersonine. This alkaloid or its 2,3 dihydro-derivative is then transported to cells (mesophyll/idioblast/laticifer) within Catharanthus leaves to complete the last three or four enzymatic transformations to make vindoline.     

Anthranilate synthase from Ruta graveolens. Duplicated AS alpha genes encode tryptophan-sensitive and tryptophan-insensitive isoenzymes specific to amino acid and alkaloid biosynthesis.

Anthranilate synthase (AS, EC 4.1.3.27) catalyzes the conversion of chorismate into anthranilate, the biosynthetic precursor of both tryptophan and numerous secondary metabolites, including inducible plant defense compounds. The higher plant Ruta graveolens produces tryptophan and elicitor-inducible, anthranilate-derived alkaloids by means of two differentially expressed nuclear genes for chloroplast-localized AS alpha subunits, AS alpha 1 and AS alpha 2. Mechanisms that partition chorismate between tryptophan and inducible alkaloids thus do not entail chloroplast/cytosol separation of AS isoenzymes and yet might involve differential feedback regulation of pathway-specific AS alpha subunits. The two AS alpha isoenzymes of R. graveolens were expressed as glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins in Escherichia coli deletion mutants defective in AS activity and were purified to homogeneity. Differential sensitivity of the transformed E. coli strains toward 5-methyltryptophan, a false-feedback inhibitor of AS, was demonstrated. Characterization of affinity-purified AS alpha isoenzymes revealed that the noninducible AS alpha 2 of R. graveolens is strongly feedback inhibited by 10 microns tryptophan. In contrast, the elicitor-inducible AS alpha 1 isoenzyme is only slightly affected even by tryptophan concentrations 10-fold higher than those observed in planta. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that chorismate flux into biosynthesis of tryptophan and defense-related alkaloid biosynthesis in R. graveolens is regulated at the site of AS alpha isoenzymes at both genetic and enzymatic levels.     

Australine, a pyrrolizidine alkaloid that inhibits amyloglucosidase and glycoprotein processing

Australine [(1R,2R,3R,7S,7aR)-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1,2,7-trihydroxypyrrolizid ine] is a polyhydroxylated pyrrolizidine alkaloid that was isolated from the seeds of the Australian tree Castanospermum australe and characterized by NMR and X-ray diffraction analysis [Molyneux et al. (1988) J. Nat. Prod. (in press)]. Since swainsonine and catanospermine are polyhydroxylated indolizidine alkaloids that inhibit specific glycosidases, we tested australine against a variety of exoglycosidases to determine whether it would inhibit any of these enzymes. This alkaloid proved to be a good inhibitor of the alpha-glucosidase amyloglucosidase (50% inhibition at 5.8 microM), but it did not inhibit beta-glucosidase, alpha- or beta-mannosidase, or alpha- or beta-galactosidase. The inhibition of amyloglucosidase was of a competitive nature. Australine also inhibited the glycoprotein processing enzyme glucosidase I, but had only slight activity toward glucosidase II. When incubated with cultured cells, this alkaloid inhibited glycoprotein processing at the glucosidase I step and caused the accumulation of glycoproteins with Glc3Man7-9(GlcNAc)2-oligosaccharides.     

Indole alkaloids from cell suspension cultures of Rauwolfia serpentina benth

Twelve indole alkaloids belonging to the Ajmaline-, Sarpagine-, Yohimbine-, and Heteroyohimbine-type have been isolated and identified from cell suspension cultures of Rauwolfia serpentina. Ten of the alkaloids were found for the first time in cultured R. serpentina cells. The yield of the main alkaloid vomilenine was 51 times more than that of differentiated plants. Crude enzymes isolated from this cell suspension culture completely metabolize the biogenetic precursor strictosidine under formation of several alkaloidal compounds.     

Multicellular compartmentation of catharanthus roseus alkaloid biosynthesis predicts intercellular translocation of a pathway intermediate

In situ RNA hybridization and immunocytochemistry were used to establish the cellular distribution of monoterpenoid indole alkaloid biosynthesis in Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus). Tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC) and strictosidine synthase (STR1), which are involved in the biosynthesis of the central intermediate strictosidine, and desacetoxyvindoline 4-hydroxylase (D4H) and deacetylvindoline 4-O-acetyltransferase (DAT), which are involved in the terminal steps of vindoline biosynthesis, were localized. tdc and str1 mRNAs were present in the epidermis of stems, leaves, and flower buds, whereas they appeared in most protoderm and cortical cells around the apical meristem of root tips. In marked contrast, d4h and dat mRNAs were associated with the laticifer and idioblast cells of leaves, stems, and flower buds. Immunocytochemical localization for TDC, D4H, and DAT proteins confirmed the differential localization of early and late stages of vindoline biosynthesis. Therefore, we concluded that the elaboration of the major leaf alkaloids involves the participation of at least two cell types and requires the intercellular translocation of a pathway intermediate. A basipetal gradient of expression in maturing leaves also was shown for all four genes by in situ RNA hybridization studies and by complementary studies with dissected leaves, suggesting that expression of the vindoline pathway occurs transiently during early leaf development. These results partially explain why attempts to produce vindoline by cell culture technology have failed.     

Utilization of a common pathway for the synthesis of high affinity macrocyclic Grb2 SH2 domain-binding peptide mimetics that differ in the configuration at one ring junction

As typified by 2-{(9S,10S,14R,18S)-18-(2-amino-2-oxoethyl)-14-[(5-methyl-1H-indol-1-yl)methyl]-8,17,20-trioxo-10-[4-(phosphonomethyl)phenyl]-7,16,19-triazaspiro[5.14]icos-11-en-9-yl}acetic acid ((14R)-1b), ring-closing methathesis-derived macrocyclic tetrapeptide mimetics have recently been reported that bind with high affinity to Grb2 SH2 domains in both extracellular and whole-cell assays. The synthetic complexity of this class of agents limits further therapeutic development. Although a significant component of this synthetic complexity arises from the presence of three stereogenic centers, C(9) (S), C(10) (S), and C(14) (R), it is unclear whether stereoselective introduction of defined configuration at C(14) is required for high-affinity binding. Reported herein is a synthetic route to these macrocycles lacking stereoselectivity in the formation of the C(14) ring junction, which is four synthetic steps shorter than the original stereoselective synthesis. Separation of C(14)-epimers obtained by this approach was achieved by preparative HPLC. Molecular-dynamics studies of ligands bound to the Grb2 SH2 domain protein indicated that the (14R)-configuration should display more-favorable interactions with the protein relative to the (14S)-epimer. Indeed, although surface-plasmon-resonance-derived binding constants to Grb2 SH2 domain protein indicated that the affinity of the (14R)-epimer (KD = 4.8 nM) is greater than that of the (14S)-epimer (KD = 11 nM), it is only marginally so. Therefore, little affinity would be lost through a non-stereoselective synthesis of the C(14)-center. Further studies are in progress to explore reduced structural complexity at the C(14)-center.     

Proteome analysis of the medicinal plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Catharanthus roseus</Emphasis>

A proteomic approach is undertaken aiming at the identification of novel proteins involved in the alkaloid biosynthesis of Catharanthus roseus. The C. roseus cell suspension culture A11 accumulates the terpenoid indole alkaloids strictosidine, ajmalicine and vindolinine. Cells were grown for 21 days, and alkaloid accumulation was monitored during this period. After a rapid increase between day 3 and day 6, the alkaloid content reached a maximum on day 16. Systematic analysis of the proteome was performed by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. After day 3, the proteome started to change with an increasing number of protein spots. On day 13, the proteome changed back to roughly the same as at the start of the growth cycle. 88 protein spots were selected for identification by mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS/MS). Of these, 58 were identified, including two isoforms of strictosidine synthase (EC 4.3.3.2), which catalyzes the formation of strictosidine in the alkaloid biosynthesis; tryptophan synthase (EC 4.1.1.28), which is needed for the supply of the alkaloid precursor tryptamine; 12-oxophytodienoate reductase, which is indirectly involved in the alkaloid biosynthesis as it catalyzes the last step in the biosynthesis of the regulator jasmonic acid. Unique sequences were found, which may also relate to unidentified biosynthetic proteins.     

Design and synthesis of potent vitamin D receptor antagonists with A-ring modifications: remarkable effects of 2alpha-methyl introduction on antagonistic activity

Novel A-ring analogues of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) antagonist (3a), ZK-159222, and its 24-epimer (3b) were convergently synthesized. Preparation of the CD-ring portions with the side chains of 3a,b, followed by palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling with the A-ring enyne precursors (15a,b), (3S,4S,5R)- and (3S,4S,5S)-bis[(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy]-4-methyloct-1-en-7-yne, afforded the 2alpha-methyl-introduced analogues (4a,b) and their 3-epimers (5a,b). The biological profiles of the hybrid analogues were assessed in terms of affinity for VDR, and antagonistic activity to inhibit HL-60 cell differentiation induced by the natural hormone, 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). The analogue 4a showed an approximately fivefold higher antagonistic activity compared with 3a. The 2alpha-methyl introduction into 3a increased the receptor affinity, thereby enhancing VDR antagonism. This approach to design potent antagonists based on hybridization of structural motifs in the A-ring and in the side chain may prove to be valuable.     

Secondary metabolite biosynthesis in cultured cells of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don immobilized by adhesion to glass fibres

Summary Suspension-cultured cells of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don were immobilized on glass fibre mats and cultivated in shake flasks. The highly-aggregated immobilized cells exhibited a slower growth rate and accumulated reduced levels of tryptamine and indole alkaloids, represented by catharanthine and ajmalicine, in comparison to cells in suspension. The increased total protein synthesis in immobilized cells suggests a diversion of the primary metabolic flux toward protein biosynthetic pathways and away from other growth processes. In vitro assays for the specific activity of tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC) and tryptophan synthase (TS) suggest that the decreased accumulation of tryptamine in immobilized cells was due to reduced tryptophan biosynthesis. The specific activity of TDC was similar in immobilized and suspension-cultured cells. However, the expression of TS activity in immobilized cells was reduced to less than 25% of the maximum level in suspension-cultured cells. The reduced availability of a free tryptophan pool in immobilized cells is consistent with the reduced TS activity. Reduced tryptamine accumulation, however, was not responsible for the decreased accumulation of indole alkaloids in immobilized cells. Indole alkaloid accumulation increased to a similar level in immobilized and suspension-cultured cells only after the addition of exogenous secolaganin to the culture medium. The addition of tryptophan resulted in increased accumulation of tryptamine, but had no effect on indole alkaloid levels. Reduced biosynthesis of secologanin, the monoterpenoid precursor to indole alkaloids, in immobilized cells is suggested. Immobilization does not appear to alter the activity of indole alkaloid biosynthetic enzymes in our system beyond, and including, strictosidine synthase. Offprint requests to: P. J. Facchini     

Antimalarial constituents from Nauclea orientalis (L.) L

Bioassay-guided fractionation of the antimalarial-active CHCl3 extract of the dried stem of Nauclea orientalis (L.) L. (Rubiaceae) has resulted in the isolation of two novel tetrahydro-beta-carboline monoterpene alkaloid glucosides, naucleaorine (= (16alpha,17beta)-3,14:15,20-tetradehydro-16-ethenyl-17-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-19alpha-methoxyoxayohimban-21-one; 1) and epimethoxynaucleaorine (2), as well as the known compounds, strictosidine lactam (= (15beta,16alpha,17beta)-19,20-didehydro-16-ethenyl-17-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)oxayohimban-21-one; 3), 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenol (4), 3alpha-hydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid methyl ester (5), 3alpha,23-dihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid (6), 3alpha,19alpha,23-trihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid methyl ester (7), and oleanolic acid (8). Compounds 1, 2, 6, and 8 showed moderate in vitro activities against Plasmodium falciparum. Their structures and configurations were elucidated by spectroscopic methods including 1D- and 2D-NMR analyses.     

3D-Structure and function of strictosidine synthase--the key enzyme of monoterpenoid indole alkaloid biosynthesis

Strictosidine synthase (STR; EC 4.3.3.2) plays a key role in the biosynthesis of monoterpenoid indole alkaloids by catalyzing the Pictet-Spengler reaction between tryptamine and secologanin, leading exclusively to 3alpha-(S)-strictosidine. The structure of the native enzyme from the Indian medicinal plant Rauvolfia serpentina represents the first example of a six-bladed four-stranded beta-propeller fold from the plant kingdom. Moreover, the architecture of the enzyme-substrate and enzyme-product complexes reveals deep insight into the active centre and mechanism of the synthase highlighting the importance of Glu309 as the catalytic residue. The present review describes the 3D-structure and function of R. serpentina strictosidine synthase and provides a summary of the strictosidine synthase substrate specificity studies carried out in different organisms to date. Based on the enzyme-product complex, this paper goes on to describe a rational, structure-based redesign of the enzyme, which offers the opportunity to produce novel strictosidine derivatives which can be used to generate alkaloid libraries of the N-analogues heteroyohimbine type. Finally, alignment studies of functionally expressed strictosidine synthases are presented and the evolutionary aspects of sequence- and structure-related beta-propeller folds are discussed.