Occurrence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in bromeliad species from the tropical Atlantic forest biome in Brazil

The mycorrhizal status of epiphytic, rupicolous, and terrestrial bromeliad species from the Brazilian Atlantic Rain Forest has been examined. Roots of 13 species of bromeliads were analyzed for the presence of mycorrhizal structures such as arbuscules, hyphae, and vesicles as well as other fungal structures. Rhizosphere soil was sampled to identify arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) species associated only with terrestrial bromeliad species. Most specimens collected were epiphytic bromeliads in the genera Aechmea, Bilbergia, Nidularium, Tillandsia, and Vriesea. Differentiating structures of AMF were found in only three species of bromeliads. The pattern of mycorrhizal colonization was mainly internal, and external mycelium and arbuscules were observed only in the terrestrial Nidularium procerum. Root endophytes with dark brown septate mycelium, thin external hyphae, and Rhizoctonia-like sclerotia were also detected in some root segments. A total of ten spore morphotypes were recovered from the rhizosphere of N. procerum, with Acaulospora mellea, A. foveata, and Glomus sp. being the most common species recovered. Our study demonstrated that most of the epiphytic species are not associated with AMF. We attribute this mainly to the exposed bare root conditions found in epiphytic bromeliads.     

Ancestral lineages of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomales)

Using new and existing 18S rRNA sequence data, we show that at least five species of glomalean fungi lie outside the previously defined families and diverged very early in the evolution of that group. These five fungi would have been missed by many previous ecological studies because their sequences are not well matched to available taxon-specific primers and they do not stain well with the standard reagents used for morphological analysis. Based upon spore morphology, these species are currently assigned to Glomus and Acaulospora, and two of the species are dimorphic, exhibiting spore stages of both genera. This suggests that dimorphic spores are the ancestral state for the order and that one or the other morphology was lost in various lineages. Our analyses also show that Geosiphon pyriforme, a symbiont with cyanobacteria, is not necessarily a sister group of the Glomales; instead, it may be derived from mycorrhizal ancestors.     

Endophytic and mycorrhizal fungi associated with roots of endangered native orchids from the Atlantic Forest, Brazil

The composition and diversity of fungal communities associated with three endangered orchid species, Hadrolaelia jongheana, Hoffmannseggella caulescens, and Hoffmannseggella cinnabarina, found in different vegetation formations of the Atlantic Forest were determined by constructing clone libraries and by applying diversity and richness indices. Our results demonstrated the presence of Basidiomycetes. Sebacinales (81.61 %) and Cantharellales (12.10 %) were the dominant orders and are potential candidates for orchid mycorrhizal fungi. The Ascomycetes identified included the Helotiales (29.31 %), Capnodiales (18.10 %), and Sordariales (10.34 %), among others. These orders may represent potentially endophytic fungi. A Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′) analysis showed a relatively high fungal community diversity associated with these tropical orchids. This diversity may offer greater flexibility in terms of the adaptation of the plants to changing environmental conditions and the potential facilitation of reintroduction programs. The Simpson diversity index values showed that all of the libraries included dominant species, and a LIBSHUFF analysis showed that the fungal communities were structurally different from each other, suggesting an influence of local factors on this diversity. This study offers important information for the development of conservation strategies for threatened and endemic species of Brazilian flora in an important and threatened hotspot.     

Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in restinga and dunes areas in Brazilian Northeast

Strong anthropogenic pressure, mainly mineral extraction, is one of the main factors leading to degradation of the Brazilian coastal environment. Strategies to recover these areas include replanting native plant species, and symbiotic fungi from the neighboring area might be important for the establishment of the new vegetation. Species richness, diversity and community composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) were investigated in NE Brazil in two natural areas, ‘restinga’ forest and seaside ‘restinga’, and in two areas of revegetated dunes after mining activity 20 and 8?years ago. Soil samples were collected during the dry (March) and wet (September) seasons of 2009 in Mataraca, Paraíba State, Brazil. Based on glomerospore morphology, 34 species of AMF were recorded, of which 29 were identified in field samples and five after trap culturing, with the greatest diversity and richness found in the dune revegetated 8?years ago. The sampling effort allowed an assessment of between 70 and 80?% of the species estimated for the areas by the first-order Jackknife index. Among the generalist species Gigaspora margarita was the only one found in all areas and during both collection periods. The similarity of AMF species between the revegetated areas and the seaside ‘restinga’ was >60?%, supporting the hypothesis that this area represents a source of propagules, but the substrate used for seedling production may also bring other species, enabling the recovery of the AMF community in the mined and revegetated dunes.     

荒漠地区植物丛枝菌根真菌研究进展

丛枝菌根真菌（arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,AMF）与超过80%的陆生植物形成共生关系,在改善土壤质量、增强宿主抗逆性及调节物质循环等方面发挥重要的生态功能。荒漠是指气候极端干旱、地表植被稀疏、自然环境荒凉的地区。荒漠地区生存环境恶劣,AMF在其中扮演着重要的角色。本文概述了荒漠生态系统中AMF的定殖时空异质性和多样性、AMF对土壤稳定性及碳氮循环的贡献、AMF对植物的促生抗逆性及维持植物群落稳定和多样性的作用以及AMF与荒漠农作物种植等方面的研究成果,为荒漠地区AMF的进一步研究及其开发利用提供了重要参考。     

黄檗根围丛枝菌根真菌菌群组成

从东北林业大学林场采集黄檗Phellodendron amurense根系及根围土壤,采用Nested-PCR技术扩增黄檗菌根及根围土壤AM真菌18S rDNA NS31/Glol区域,利用该产物进行DGGE分析,并结合DNA测序、系统发育分析及DGGE图谱分析技术对黄檗AM真菌菌群组成进行分析.结果表明:Nested-PCR技术具有较高的灵敏性,可有效地从微量DNA中扩增出约230bp的目的片段;黄檗根系及根围土壤具有不同的DGGE指纹图谱特征,DGGE带谱在条带的数量、亮度、优势度等方面均存在较大差异,全部序列可分为3类菌群,即球囊霉属Glomus、盾孢囊霉属Scutellospora及植物病原菌黄杨亚赤壳Hyponectria buxi,其中Glomus sp.(EF177624)和Glomus sp.(DQ085205)分别为黄檗根系和根围土壤样品中最具优势的AM真菌.     

Root colonization and spore abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in distinct successional stages from an Atlantic rainforest biome in southern Brazil

The influence of plant functional groups and moderate seasonality on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal status (root colonization and spore density) was investigated during 13 consecutive months in a chronosequence of succession in southern Brazil, consisting of grassland field, scrub vegetation, secondary forest and mature forest, in a region of transition from tropical to subtropical zones. AM root colonization and spore density decreased with advancing succession and were highest in early successional sites with grassland and scrub vegetation, intermediary in the secondary forest and lowest in the mature forest. They were little influenced by soil properties, but were sufficiently influenced by the fine root nutrient status and fine root traits among different functional plant groups. AM root colonization and spore density were higher during the favourable plant growth season (spring and summer) than during the less favourable plant growth season (autumn and winter). Spore density displayed significant seasonal variation at all sites, whilst root colonization displayed significant seasonal variation in grassland, scrub and secondary forest, but not in mature forest. The data suggest that (1) different plant functional groups display different relationships with AM fungi, influencing their abundance differentially; (2) plant species from early successional phases are more susceptible to AM root colonization and maintain higher AM sporulation than late successional species; (3) fine root traits and nutrient status influence these AM fungal attributes; and (4) higher AM spore production and root colonization is associated with the season of higher light incidence and temperature, abundant water in soil and higher plant metabolic activity.     

Taxonomic diversity and community structure of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Phylum Glomeromycota) in three maritime sand dunes in Santa Catarina state,south Brazil

Community structure and species richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Phylum Glomeromycota) were studied in sand dune sites at Itapiruba (southern), Joaquina (intermediate) and Praia Grande (northern) beaches along the coast of the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. In each site, a 20 × 20 m plot was established and 20 soil samples collected in a regular grid pattern. Fungal spores were extracted from each sample, counted and identified to species level. A total of 25 species were recovered belonging to seven genera and five families in the Glomeromycota. Gigaspora albida and Acaulospora scrobiculata occurred in >50 % of samples at all three sites. Other common species whose sample frequency was >50 % in one or two sites were Scutellospora weresubiae, Scutellospora cerradensis and Racocetra gregaria, while the remaining majority of species were detected in <25 % of samples within a given site. Dune sites could be differentiated based on the higher frequency of occurrence of S. cerradensis and Acaulospora morrowiae in Itapiruba, S. weresubiae in Joaquina, and Scutellospora hawaiiensis in Praia Grande. No differences across sites were observed for species richness and total spore numbers, the latter averaging from 28.8 to 31.8 spores per 100 ml soil. Shannon diversity was significantly higher in Praia Grande compared to the other two sites. Differences in the relative spore abundance of genera among dunes were detected only for Scutellospora, which was significantly more abundant in the Joaquina beach. Community structure, as depicted by species rank/log abundance graphs, was not significantly different between areas according to the Kolmogorov–Smirnov two-sample test. Species accumulation curves demonstrated that 13 samples were enough to detect 90 % of all species. Overall, sand dune systems share similar arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities despite being geographically distant (150 km) from each other.     

Phylogeny of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi predicts community composition of symbiosis-associated bacteria

Many physicochemical and biotic aspects of the soil environment determine the community composition of bacteria. In this study, we examined the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, common symbionts of higher plants, on the composition of bacterial communities after long-term (7-8 years) enrichment culture in the presence of a plant host. We showed that the phylogeny of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal isolates was a highly significant predictor of bacterial community composition, as assessed by cluster analysis, redundancy analysis and linear discriminant analysis of phospholipid fatty acid patterns. Numerous phospholipid fatty acids differed between the phylogenetic groupings; this pattern also held for fungal-origin phospholipid fatty acids and in a combined bacterial/fungal analysis, suggesting that categorizing phospholipid fatty acids into predominantly bacterial and fungal origin did not affect the overall outcome. The mechanisms underlying this observation could include substrate quality (and quantity) effects, interactions mediated by the host plant (e.g. rhizodeposition) and direct biotic interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and bacterial populations. Our results suggest that aspects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal functions may be partially explained by the symbiosis-accompanying bacterial communities, a possibility that should be explicitly considered in studies examining the roles of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species diversity in soil and ecosystem processes.     

Changes in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities along a river delta island in northeastern Brazil

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) play a key role in the maintenance of the balance of terrestrial ecosystems, but little is known about the biogeography of these fungi, especially on tropical islands. This study aims to compare AMF community structure along a transect crossing a fluvial-marine island and relate these communities with soil and vegetation parameters to shed light on the forces driving AMF community structure on a local scale. We tested the hypothesis that the composition of AMF communities changes across the island, even within short distances among sites, in response to differences in edaphic characteristics and vegetation physiognomies. We sampled roots and soils in five different natural and degraded habitats: preserved mangrove forest (MF), degraded mangrove forest (MD), natural Restinga forest (RF), and two regeneration Restinga forests (RR1 and RR2) on Ilha da Restinga, northeastern Brazil. We determined the mycorrhizal colonization rate and AMF community structure based on morphological spore identification. The island soils were sandy with pH varying from acid to neutral; higher levels of organic matter were registered in RF and lower in MF; other chemical and physical soil attributes differed along the habitat types on the island. In total, 22 AMF species were identified, without any difference in species richness. However, the diversity and composition of AMF communities, spore abundance per families, and mycorrhizal colonization were statistically different among the habitats. The composition of AMF communities was strongly related to soil characteristics, especially the sum of exchangeable bases. Our results indicate that the different habitat types have diverse AMF communities even within short distances among habitats. In conclusion, islands with high spatial heterogeneity in soil parameters and diverse vegetation are potential refuges for the diversity conservation of AM fungi.     

城市生态系统中丛枝菌根真菌侵染状况及群落特征

作者采集了北京、青岛、济南、南京、武汉和贵阳6个城市中部分大学校园高羊茅Festuca elata、城内公园大叶黄杨Euonymus japonicus及郊区公园连翘Forsythia suspensa根区土样,测定菌根着生状况和丛枝菌根（arbuscular mycorrhizal,AM）AM真菌孢子密度,形态鉴定AM真菌种类,测定AM真菌种丰度、多样性指数及群落结构等。除从北京中国人民大学校园草坪和南京下马坊公园的大叶黄杨根系上未见丛枝结构外,其他根系样品均观测到典型的丛枝和泡囊结构,丛枝着生率较低,且多为A-型。各城市大多数样品的菌根总侵染率、丛枝着生率和泡囊数分别低于40%、5%和1/mm。北京中国人民大学草坪根系菌根总侵染率显著低于其他城市校区的。除北京香山的连翘和济南山东大学的高羊茅上的种丰度、Shannon指数、以及北京紫竹院公园大叶黄杨上的孢子密度之外,青岛市的3种植物上AM真菌的孢子密度、种丰度和Shannon指数均高于其他城市的。各校园草坪中相同的AM真菌种类较少,但放射球囊霉Glomus radiatum分布频率100%,为校园草坪中的优势种。城市公园以青岛中山公园的AM真菌的孢子密度和种丰度最高;郊区公园以贵阳黔灵山的孢子密度、种丰度和Shannon指数最高,武汉狮子山的种丰度和Shannon指数最低。土壤氮沉降与泡囊数量呈显著负相关,土壤压实程度与泡囊数量呈显著正相关。大叶黄杨根区土壤中AM真菌种丰度与土壤有机质含量呈显著正相关,Shannon指数与土壤pH呈显著正相关。结论认为,中国不同城市生态系统中AM真菌群落结构差异较大,氮沉降和土壤压实程度对根内泡囊数量具有不同的影响。     

Phosphorus uptake by a community of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in jarrah forest

Communities of indigenous arbusuclar mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are expected to alter phosphorus uptake and biomass productivity of plants according to characteristics of the life cycles of the fungi present and the way they interact with each other inside roots and with host plants. Differences in the relative abundance of AM fungi inside roots could influence P uptake if the fungi present differ in effectiveness at accessing P and transferring it to the plant. However, it is difficult to assess the contribution of AM fungi under field conditions. We investigated P uptake, from point sources of P placed 2, 4 and 6 cm from roots, by plants colonised by a community of AM fungi in jarrah forest soil. Roots were retained within a mesh bag to prevent them from growing towards the point source of P. The relative abundance of morphotypes of fungi inside roots and the P status of plants were assessed after 12 and 16 weeks. First, a bioassay was carried out in undisturbed forest soil cores using two host plants, a forest understorey plant Phyllanthus calycinus Labill and the annual pasture species subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneaumL.), to assess the infectivity of the indigenous community of AM fungi. Roots of both bioassay host plants were colonised in similar proportions by morphotypes of AM fungi resembling Glomus, Acaulospora, Scutellospora and fine endophytes. In this bioassay, there were positive correlations between the proportion of root length colonised and plant biomass and P uptake for P. calycinus, but not for subterranean clover. In the experiment assessing the capacity of P. calycinus to access P placed at increasing distances from the root, shoot P content and concentration in P. calycinus were greater when P was placed 2 cm compared with 4 and 6 cm from roots. The length of hyphae in the vicinity of the point source of P decreased with increasing distance from the plant. The extent to which the individual AM fungi were involved in P uptake is not known. The Glomus morphotype was dominant at both times of sampling.     

Cd-tolerant arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi from heavy-metal polluted soils

Spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi were isolated from two heavy-metal polluted soils in France via trap culture with leek (Allium porrum L.). Preliminary identification showed that the predominant spore type of both cultures (P2 and Cd40) belongs to the Glomus mosseae group. Their sensitivity to cadmium was compared to a laboratory reference strain (G. mosseae) by in vitro germination tests with cadmium nitrate solutions at a range of concentrations (0 to 100 mg L^–1) as well as extracts from a metal-polluted and unpolluted soils. Both cultures of AM fungi from heavy-metal polluted soils were more tolerant to cadmium than the G. mosseae reference strain. The graphically estimated EC₅₀ was 0.8 mg L^–1 Cd (concentration added to the test device) for G. mosseae and 7 mg L^–1 for P2 culture, corresponding to effective Cd concentrations of approximately 50–70 g L^–1 and 200–500 g L^–1, respectively. The extract of the metal-polluted soil P2 decreased germination of spores from the reference G. mosseae but not from P2 culture. However, the extracts of two unpolluted soils with different physico-chemical characteristics did not affect G. mosseae, whereas germination of P2 spores was markedly decreased in the presence of one of the extracts. These results indicate a potential adaptation of AM fungi to elevated metal concentrations in soil. The tested spores may be considered as metal-tolerant ecotypes. Spore germination results in presence of soil extracts show the difficulty of assessing the ecotoxic effect of metals on AM fungi without considering other soil factors that may interfere in spore germination and hyphal extension.     

铜胁迫对丛枝菌根真菌群落功能的影响

过去20年来,对不同来源丛枝菌根真菌(AMF)的功能开展了大量研究,但多数基于对单个AMF功能的比较,群落水平的研究较少,且很多研究混淆了AMF来源和群落结构对其功能的影响,忽略了宿主的重要作用.本研究通过两个短期温室盆栽试验,分析了铜胁迫对AMF群落结构的影响,比较了不同AMF群落的功能差异.结果表明:铜胁迫显著改变了AMF群落的孢子丰度和组成.以根内球囊霉和幼套球囊霉为优势种的AMF群落有效减缓了铜胁迫对玉米生长和部分生理特性的抑制作用.     

Solanum knappiae sp. nov. (Solanaceae) from the Atlantic Forest of northeastern Brazil

While preparing a taxonomic survey of the species of Solanum in the Atlantic Forest of northeastern Brazil, a new species, here described as Solanum knappiae Agra & Sampaio, was recognized based on its distinctive morphology. It is a member of Solanum sect. Geminata and is most similar to S. bahianum, from which it differs by its geographic distribution and by having glabrous young stems and leaves, smaller corollas and stamens, cuspidate calyx lobes, and pedicels with a constriction at the distal end that becomes swollen in the fruit. The new species is described and illustrated here, and comments on its distribution and conservation status are included.     

丛枝菌根真菌系统分类及群落研究技术进展

丛枝菌根真菌（AMF）是自然生态系统重要的组成部分,能与植物根系形成互惠共生体.传统的AMF分类主要依赖于对土壤无性孢子的形态鉴定,具有一定的局限性.近年来基于核酸分析的分子鉴定技术使AMF的分类更具科学性和准确性,补充和完善了基于孢子形态鉴定所建立的分类系统.AMF群落研究依赖于AMF的分类鉴定,主要包括孢子形态鉴定和分子生物学分析两类研究法.本文综述了AMF的分类系统和群落研究方法,着重介绍了近年来应用较多的AMF群落研究的分子生物学技术.作者认为,采取形态与分子相结合的办法将有助于推动AMF群落研究和AMF自然分类系统的建立和完善.     

Effect of environmental gradient in coastal vegetation on communities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi associated with Ixeris repens (Asteraceae)

The community structure of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi associated with Ixeris repens was studied in coastal vegetation near the Tottori sand dunes in Japan. I. repens produces roots from a subterranean stem growing near the soil surface which provides an opportunity to examine the effects of an environmental gradient related to distance from the sea on AM fungal communities at a regular soil depth. Based on partial sequences of the nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA gene, AM fungi in root samples were divided into 17 phylotypes. Among these, five AM fungal phylotypes in Glomus and Diversispora were dominant near the seaward forefront of the vegetation. Redundancy analysis of the AM fungal community showed significant relationships between the distribution of phylotypes and environmental variables such as distance from the sea, water-soluble sodium in soil, and some coexisting plant species. These results suggest that environmental gradients in the coastal vegetation can be determinants of the AM fungal community.