Changing conservation strategies in Europe: a framework integrating ecosystem services and dynamics

Protecting species and their habitats through the designation and management of protected areas is central to present biodiversity conservation efforts in Europe. Recent awareness of the importance of ecosystem dynamics in changing environments and of human needs for the sustainable provision of ecosystem services expose potential weaknesses in current European conservation management strategies and policy. Here we examine these issues in the light of information gained from reviews, workshops, interviews and discussions undertaken within the RUBICODE project. We present a new conceptual framework that joins conventional biodiversity conservation with new requirements. The framework links cultural and aesthetic values applied in a static environment to the demands of dynamic ecosystems and societal needs within social–ecological systems in a changing Europe. We employ this framework to propose innovative ways in which ecosystem service provision may be used to add value to traditional conservation approaches by supporting and complementing present European biodiversity conservation strategy and policy while remaining within the guidelines of the Convention on Biological Diversity.     

Seasonal variation in age,sex, and reproductive status of Mexican free-tailed bats

In North America, Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana) consume vast numbers of insects contributing to the economic well-being of society. Mexican free-tailed bats have declined due to historic guano mining, roost destruction, and bioaccumulation of organochlorine pesticides. Long-distance migrations and dense congregations at roosts exacerbate these declines. Wind energy development further threatens bat communities worldwide and presents emerging challenges to bat conservation. Effective mitigation of bat mortality at wind energy facilities requires baseline data on the biology of affected populations. We collected data on age, sex, and reproductive condition of Mexican free-tailed bats at a cave roost in eastern Nevada located 6 km from a 152-MW industrial wind energy facility. Over 5 years, we captured 46,353 Mexican free-tailed bats. Although just over half of the caught individuals were nonreproductive adult males (53.6%), 826 pregnant, 892 lactating, 10,101 post-lactating, and 4327 nonreproductive adult females were captured. Juveniles comprised 11.5% of captures. Female reproductive phenology was delayed relative to conspecific roosts at lower latitudes, likely due to cooler temperatures. Roost use by reproductive females and juvenile bats demonstrates this site is a maternity roost, with significant ecological and conservation value. To our knowledge, no other industrial scale wind energy facilities exist in such proximity to a heavily used bat roost in North America. Given the susceptibility of Mexican free-tailed bats to wind turbine mortality and the proximity of this roost to a wind energy facility, these data provide a foundation from which differential impacts on demographic groups can be assessed.     

Using the ecosystem services approach for better planning and conservation of urban green spaces: a Finland case study

Ecosystem services are vital for humans in urban regions. However, urban development poses a great risk for the ability of ecosystems to provide these services. In this paper we first address the most important ecosystem services in functional urban regions in Finland. Well accessible and good quality recreational ecosystem services, for example, provided by urban nature, are an important part of a high-quality living environment and important for public health. Vegetation of urban regions can have a role in carbon dioxide sequestration and thus in climate change mitigation. For instance, estimates of carbon sinks can be compared to total CO₂ emissions of an urban region, and the municipality can aim at both increasing carbon sinks and decreasing CO₂ emissions with proper land-use planning. Large and contiguous core nature areas, smaller green areas and ecological connections between them are the essence of regional ecological networks and are essential for maintaining interconnected habitats for species and thus biological diversity. Thus, both local and regional level ecological networks are vital for maintaining ecosystem services in urban regions. The impacts of climate change coupled with land-use and land cover change will bring serious challenges for maintaining ecosystem services in urban areas. Although not yet widely used in planning practices, the ecosystem services approach can provide an opportunity for land-use planning to develop ecologically sustainable urban regions. Currently, information on ecosystem services of urban regions is lacking and there is a need to improve the knowledge base for land-use planning.     

Questioning the ecosystem services argument for biodiversity conservation

One of the central justifications for the conservation of biodiversity is the notion that species diversity is essential for the maintenance of ecosystem services. However, an important observation overlooked by proponents of this argument is that most ecosystem services are provided not by whole ecosystems, but by any group of species that fulfils certain basic functional criteria. Distinguishing between services that are resilient in response to species decline, and those that are not, is a far less challenging task than identifying the precise influence on ecosystem functioning of rare species. Conservationists have been almost unanimous in their failure to acknowledge this distinction between resilient and sensitive ecosystem services. Not only does this threaten the credibility of conservation science, but also increases the likelihood that natural area management becomes hijacked by the demand that ecosystem service provision be made the dominant management criteria.     

Ecological Infrastructure as a framework for mapping ecosystem services for place-based conservation and management

Ecosystem services are an important nexus between people and nature. Nevertheless, their inclusion in place-based conservation and management is limited also because they are often intangible. The Ecological Infrastructure (EI) concept is a promising framework to address this, but a clear definition and mapping approach is still missing. We aim to analyse the uses of EI and to distil a definition and recommendations for using EI as a framework for mapping ecosystem services. A semi-systematic review of peer-reviewed and grey literature was conducted to examine: (1) perceptions of what constitutes EI (n = 117), and (2) EI mapping approaches (n = 51). The main interpretations of EI indicated that it should be natural or naturally functioning (56%); deliver multiple services (75%); and benefit humans (64%) and biodiversity (36%). EI was thus defined as ‘natural and naturally functioning ecological systems or networks of ecological systems that deliver multiple services to humans and enable biodiversity persistence’. Studies have used simple proxies, e.g., land cover, to identify EI, sometimes combined with service-specific variables. To evaluate EI performance (26% of studies), modelling all three ecosystem service aspects (capacity, flow, and demand) was considered appropriate. EI prioritisation (50% of studies) as part of a systematic spatial prioritisation process was recommended. Sixteen recommendations for mapping EI for inclusion in place-based conservation and management were developed. We illustrate how EI can be used to integrate ecosystem services into conservation and management in three real-world applications. The EI-based framework is a promising approach and supports the new ‘people and nature’ era in conservation.     

生态系统及其服务保护评估:指标与方法

生态系统及其服务的保护日益成为保护生态学研究的前沿和热点领域.本文对国际上生态系统保护和生态系统服务评估的最新概念和方法进展进行综述,主要包括生态系统保护状况及濒危或保护优先等级确定的指标、标准,以及生态系统服务评估和保护的主要方法(包括参数法、模型法和定量指标法),并结合中国生态保护研究的进展和需求,明确了急需解决的问题:1)提出适合中国国情的生态系统保护评估的指标、标准和方法;2)发展生态系统服务评估的定量化方法;3)确定生态系统和生态功能保护需求及其空间优化布局;4)生态系统及其服务保护的政策和激励机制.这些问题的解决将会为生态文明建设提供重要保障.     

Estimating population trends using population viability analyses for the conservation ofCapra pyrenaica

Large herbivore populations can suffer important oscillations with considerable effects on ecosystem functions and services, yet our capacity to predict population fate is limited and conditional upon the availability of data. This study investigated the interannual variation in the growth rate of populations ofCapra pyrenaica Schinz, 1838, and its extinction risk by comparing the dynamics of populations that were stable for more than two decades (Gredos and Tortosa-Beceite), populations that had increased recently (Tejeda-Almijara), and populations that were in decline (Cazorla-Segura) or extinct (the Pyrenees population; hereafter, bucardo). To estimate quasi-extinction threshold assessments (50% of population extinct in this study), which have implications for the conservation of the species, we used empirical data and the predictions derived from several theoretical models. The results indicate that when variance of log population growth rate reaches a specific threshold, the probability of quasi-extinction increased drastically. ForC. pyrenaica, we recommend keeping population variance < 0.05, which will reduce the likelihood that the irruptive oscillations caused by environmental and demographic stochasticity will put the population at risk. Models to predict the dynamics ofC. pyrenaica populations should incorporate temporal stochasticity because, in this study, it strongly increased the likelihood that a population declined.     

Optimizing conservation of forest diversity: a country-wide approach in Mexico

A recent vegetation study [Palacio-Prieto et al. (2000) Bol Inst Geogr UNAM 43:183–203] showed that Mexico’s forest area has declined to 33.3%, from originally 52.0% of the country’s land area. In order to assess strategies for tree diversity conservation, we compiled a list of 846 tree species native to Mexico, and determined for each the presence or absence in 234 geographical squares of 1° latitude by 1° longitude (approximately 106 × 106 km). On the average, any two squares shared only 6% of their species composition. Using a standard optimization method from engineering and economics [Dantzig (1963) Linear programming and extensions. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA, 625 p], we determined the minimally necessary land area in Mexico to conserve the 846 tree species, while securing that each species is found in an area of (approximately) 1,100 km² of currently existing forest vegetation. Furthermore, we took into account 15 existing protected areas with a size of at least 1,100 km² each. With these constraints, the total minimum area needed to conserve all 846 tree species is 45,136 km² of currently existing forest vegetation, or 2.3% of Mexico’s surface. While this analysis can be refined with subsequent field work, the proposed reserve network indicates that efficient land use planning on a national scale may be able to conserve tree species diversity in a relatively small portion of Mexico, even after severe deforestation has taken place.     

集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的系统保护规划

生物多样性和生态系统服务的保护与可持续管理是当今世界面临的重大挑战之一,但如何判识与优化集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护对象的保护优先区网络,相关研究还很有限。针对“三江并流”区,选取珍稀濒危与特有动植物物种和自然植被类型作为生物多样性保护对象,以调节服务(碳存储、固碳和土壤保持)、文化服务(自然游憩)和供给服务(水源供给)为生态系统服务保护对象。应用系统保护规划方法,首先判识出单一生物多样性和生态系统服务保护优先区;然后,分析这些保护优先区间的相关关系,并选择与生物多样性正相关的生态系统服务类型,判识集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的保护优先区;最后,评估了集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区在六类已建保护地中的保护状况。结果表明：(1)“三江并流”区多情景规划得到的生物多样性与生态系统服务保护优先区之间均呈正相关关系;(2)与分别针对生态系统服务和生物多样性的规划情景相比,集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区能够同时对两类保护对象提供最高的保护覆盖率;(3)集成生态系统服务和生物多样性保护优先区占研究区总面积的48.9%,其已建保护地覆盖率为32.5%,说明现有保护地体系仍存在保护...     

Phytodiversity of temperate permanent grasslands: ecosystem services for agriculture and livestock management for diversity conservation

Plant diversity has been reported to increase productivity. Farming practices aiming at conserving or increasing plant diversity are, however, usually less profitable than conventional ones. In this review, we aim to find reasons for this discrepancy, discuss ecosystem services of grassland phytodiversity that are useful for farmers, and ways of livestock management most beneficial for diversity. Under agricultural conditions, a clear effect of species richness on a site’s primary or secondary production has not yet been demonstrated. Reasons could be that species numbers in permanent grassland are above the threshold of five species found effective in experimental plots or that the conditions are more in equilibrium with management than in weeded experimental plots. Other diversity effects on production stability, nutrient and water retention or product quality might convince farmers to increase diversity. However, these should be tested in agricultural situations, as most research has again been carried out in experimental plots. To enhance phytodiversity, grazing has been found superior over mowing, as selective grazing, treading and excreta deposition increase the heterogeneity of a sward and thus the niches available. Especially rotational grazing with intermediate intensity may be advantageous for phytodiversity. However, complex interactions between environmental conditions, sward composition, management and livestock behaviour make it difficult to forecast grazing effects. Thus, ecological and agricultural researchers should cooperate more, e.g. either in interdisciplinary projects or by hiring researchers from the respective other profession and thus diversifying research groups, in order to integrate agricultural management into biodiversity research and biodiversity measurements into agricultural research to advance our understanding of how to make conservation and enhancement of grassland phytodiversity both feasible and sustainable.     

The consequences of polyandry for population viability,extinction risk and conservation

Polyandry, by elevating sexual conflict and selecting for reduced male care relative to monandry, may exacerbate the cost of sex and thereby seriously impact population fitness. On the other hand, polyandry has a number of possible population-level benefits over monandry, such as increased sexual selection leading to faster adaptation and a reduced mutation load. Here, we review existing information on how female fitness evolves under polyandry and how this influences population dynamics. In balance, it is far from clear whether polyandry has a net positive or negative effect on female fitness, but we also stress that its effects on individuals may not have visible demographic consequences. In populations that produce many more offspring than can possibly survive and breed, offspring gained or lost as a result of polyandry may not affect population size. Such ecological ‘masking’ of changes in population fitness could hide a response that only manifests under adverse environmental conditions (e.g. anthropogenic change). Surprisingly few studies have attempted to link mating system variation to population dynamics, and in general we urge researchers to consider the ecological consequences of evolutionary processes.     

Effects of budget constraints on conservation network design for biodiversity and ecosystem services

Limited budgets and budget cuts hamper the development of effective biodiversity conservation networks. Optimizing the spatial configuration of conservation networks given such budget constraints remains challenging. Systematic conservation planning addresses this challenge. Systematic conservation planning can integrate both biodiversity and ecosystem services as conservation targets, and hence address the challenge to operationalize ecosystem services as an anthropocentric argument for conservation. We create two conservation scenarios to expand the current conservation network in the Dutch province of Limburg. One scenario focuses on biodiversity only and the other integrates biodiversity and ecosystem services. We varied conservation budgets in these scenarios and used the software Marxan to assess differences in the resulting network configurations. In addition, we tested the network’s cost-effectiveness by allocating a conservation budget either in one or in multiple steps. We included twenty-nine biodiversity surrogates and five ecosystem services. The inclusion of ecosystem services to expand Limburg’s conservation network only moderately changed prioritized areas, compared to only conserving biodiversity. Network expansion in a single time-step is more efficient in terms of compactness and cost-effectiveness than implementing it in multiple time-steps. Therefore, to cost-effectively plan conservation networks, the full budget should ideally be available before the plans are implemented. We show that including ecosystem services to cost-effectively expand conservation networks can simultaneously encourage biodiversity conservation and stimulate the protection of conservation-compatible ecosystem services.     

生态系统服务功能分类与价值评估探讨

生态系统服务功能及其价值评估研究是当前生态学研究的热点,对于促进生态系统可持续管理具有重要作用。目前,在生态系统服务功能分类及价值评估方面,还没有形成比较系统的理论;在服务价值的评估方面,国内相关研究多数套用现有的一般化计算公式对生态服务功能进行计算,缺少针对性和探索性。总结近年来笔者在这方面的研究得失,并综合前人的研究,将生态系统服务功能进行新的分类,提出“核心”服务功能、“理论”服务价值与“现实”服务价值的概念,并以温州三湿地生态系统服务功能及其价值评估研究作为实例,论证所提出的新概念。生态系统服务功能及价值评估研究的最终目的是为生态系统管理决策者提供信息,因此服务价值评估的意义不在于对每一项服务功能价值的精确估算,甚至不需要计算一个生态系统所有的服务功能价值,而应抓住一个或几个有计算依据的核心服务功能。提出理论服务价值概念的主要目的在于同现实服务价值的比较,量化某服务功能的退化程度,明确后续生态恢复和重建的主要目标,并可在一定程度上作为生态恢复的重要指标。     

Paradigm shifts in fish conservation: moving to the ecosystem services concept

Various factors constrain the existence and development of inland fishes and fisheries, such as pollution, habitat degradation, alien invasive species, local user conflicts, low social priority and inadequate research and funding. In many cases, however, degradation of the environment and loss of aquatic habitat are the predominant concerns for the conservation of freshwater aquatic biota. The need for concerted effort to prevent and reduce environmental degradation, as well as protection of freshwater fishes and fisheries as renewable common pool resources or entities in their own right, are the greatest challenges facing the conservation of fishes in inland waters. Unfortunately, traditional conservation practices such as regulation of exploitation, protected areas and habitat restoration have failed to arrest the alarming increase in number of threatened freshwater fish species worldwide. This paper examines the shifting paradigm of fisheries management from rule-based regulation, through fishery enhancement towards the ecosystem approach to fisheries, with reference to inland waters, and how the emerging concept of ecosystem services coupled with traditional fish conservation management practices, institutional restructuring and integrated management planning should provide a more sustainable thrust to formulation and promotion of fish conservation initiatives.     

两栖类种群数量下降原因及保护对策

近几十年来 ,全球范围内的两栖类出现了较快的种群数量下降 ,包括部分物种的灭绝。引起两栖类种群数量下降的原因可能有 :紫外线辐射、生境破碎和改变、生物入侵和捕食、环境污染、疾病、气候变化以及这些因素的相互作用 ,其中生境破碎和改变是主要原因 ,而引起各因素变化的全球变化可能是根本原因。应加强对两栖类种群动态的研究 ,探明其下降机制 ,制定相应的保护对策 ,减少两栖类的下降     

Mapping multiple ecosystem services indicators: Toward an objective-oriented approach

Quantifying and mapping ecosystem services (ES), their indicators and their relationships is of crucial importance for environmental management. In this article, we analyze the spatial distribution of multiple-ES indicators at three locations on the pioneer fronts of the Brazilian Amazon. We identify trade-offs and synergies between six ES indicators for soil, vegetation and biodiversity characterization. We also propose spatial representations of multiple-ES indicators (vegetation carbon stocks, rates of water infiltration into soil, soil chemical quality, soil carbon stocks, biodiversity and richness in Sphingidae). Finally, we discuss three different methods to map them depending on the goals of the maps, arguing that maps lean on objective-oriented approaches. The study is based on remote sensing and sampling data from 135 sampling points. We created multiple-ES indicators maps based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA), a score of ES richness, and discrimination of land cover units. PCA is an appropriate tool for showing high correlations between indicators, nevertheless has notable limitations for visual communication. The scoring method may help mapping ES hotspots, however it fails to consider relationships among them. The land-cover-based method has the advantage of being simple and easy to interpret, still it may not consider important indicators not related to land-cover changes. We discuss the interests and limitations of these different ways to map multiple-ES indicators, regarding the final goals of the maps.     

Towards a theoretical basis for ecosystem conservation

Humans have altered the environment so severely that extinction events are now occurring at rates unprecedented in modern history. In order to slow this trend, conservation actions must be taken to protect biodiversity, beyond just saving flagship species. Some governmental and conservation organizations have responded by committing to ecosystem conservation but, as yet, there is no coherent strategy for how this can be carried out. This report introduces many of the theoretical aspects that will need to be considered for the development of a coherent ecosystem conservation policy. The approach includes analyzing a hierarchy of interaction-based local coexistence mechanisms within a regional and historical context. This approach points toward the need for prioritizing sensitive habitats using local interaction models; considering the effects of historical exploitation mechanisms, which are now often missing; and evaluating regional diversity influences further to identify circumstances where system-wide habitat improvements deserve more emphasis.