Comparative morphology of the venom gland and reservoir in opiine and alysiine braconid wasps (Insecta, Hymenoptera, Braconidae)

Detailed venom reservoir and venom gland intima morphology was investigated in representatives of 178 species and 76 genera of Braconidae belonging to the subfamilies Opiinae (23 genera and 69 species) and Alysiinae (36 genera and 67 species of Alysiini, and 17 genera and 42 species of Dacnusini). The presence of an unsculptured sack–like expansion of the anterior end of the reservoir suggests a relationship between some members of the alysiine tribe Dacnusini, viz. Exotela and Chorebus , and the genera Oenonogaster and Glyphogaster , both of which are currently placed in the Alysiini. The same feature also suggests that Exotela, Chorebus, Oenonogaster and Glyphogaster may be derived from the Opiinae separately from other Alysiinae. Other dacnusines examined are indicated as forming a monophyletic taxon on the basis of their reduced and narrow reservoirs. An anterior insertion of the venom glands on to the reservoir generally supports the Phaenocarpa group of alysiine genera, with some modification, whereas the presence of a discrete, narrow posterior extension of the reservoir represents a synapomorphy for members of the Aspilota group of alysiine genera. The phylogenetic inferences from this venom apparatus study are discussed in the light of the biology of the taxa concerned. Twenty-one new combinations are made in the Opiinae and seven in the Alysiinae.     

Review on the use of sexually dimorphic characters in the taxonomy of Diabroticites (Galerucinae,Luperini, Diabroticina)

Sexual dimorphism occurs frequently in Chrysomelidae Latreille, 1802 and is particularly variable in subfamily Galerucinae Latreille, 1802. This diversity has been early noted by authors a potential source of taxonomic characters. The section Diabroticites (Luperini Gistel, 1848) is one of the largest assemblies of chrysomelid genera with currently 823 valid species in 17 genera (12 based on dimorphic characteristics), being most diverse in the neotropical region. Apart from a revision work on the type specimens for the section, there are no general taxonomic studies for this group. The occurrence of sexually dimorphic characteristics in the section Diabroticites is revised and their practical taxonomic relevance evaluated. A total of 240 species was studied (145 species with males available), representing 15 out of the 17 genera included in Diabroticites. The analysis of characters was based on the study of specimens in south-american collections, literature and the aid of photos in online databases. Sexual dimorphism occurred in most species analyzed. Dimorphic features were divided in general (i. e., occur in higher taxa) and special characters (those that support the definition of species and genera). Special dimorphism was observed in every tagma, and most modifications occur in antennae. Characters used as diagnostic of genera often do not correspond to the modifications present in species included in them. Many modifications were considered by earlier authors as a single character, probably due to vague definitions. Most generic definitions are, therefore, inaccurate. The study of morphology and the homology assessment of characters are needed to increase understanding of the genera in Diabroticites.     

青藓科（Brachytheciaceae）植物假鳞毛形态及其分类学意义

青藓科是侧蒴藓类植物中种类最为丰富、分类学问题较多的类群之一。以青藓科19属、44种，594份标本为研究对象，对其假鳞毛特征进行了系统研究。结果表明：①青藓科假鳞毛均为三角形至半圆形的叶状假鳞毛；根据其顶端特征又可划分为两种类型：顶端平截或钝，顶端具毛尖；②除青藓属（Brachythecium）外，其余18属内不同种间的假鳞毛形态基本一致；③假鳞毛形态特征在青藓科植物属级水平分类上具有一定的分类学价值。     

兰科雄蕊发育多样性研究进展

兰科是被子植物中多样性最丰富的家族,其雄蕊形态和功能分化在亚科间变化明显,是该物种多样性形成及适应性传粉生物学的研究重点。基于现有研究资料,该文初步归纳了兰科雄蕊发育多样性的主要研究内容及现状,为野生兰花资源的保护与利用提供科学依据。结果如下:(1)可育雄蕊数目的减少和花粉愈合程度的增加在兰科分子系统树上呈明显的平行演化趋势。(2)兰科雄蕊数目的减少和功能分化与早期花器官发生中存在大量的滞后和缺失、次生融合与分裂现象等密切相关。(3)花药开裂时的4类散粉单元的花粉超微形态特征在亚科、族、亚族、属和种间差异明显。(4)兰科花药散粉单元可以为单花粉粒,也可以通过花药发育过程中源自绒毡层的三类黏性物质而聚合成不同的散粉单元,包括花粉鞘、弹性黏素和其他黏性物质。(5)花药发育揭示了兰亚科的花粉小块结构主要有三类(红门兰型、树兰型和过渡型),树兰亚科的不同数目(2、4、8)和形态(全缘、浅裂、深裂、孔裂)的花粉团是由于花药原基分化出的不育隔膜组织的数目、朝向和位置而形成的。(6)兰科花药发育中,花药室数目、花药壁发育类型、绒毡层细胞核数目、不育隔膜组织分化、胞质分裂类型、小孢子四分体排列形式、花粉细胞核数目等在亚科和属间差异明显。然而,由于种类繁多,现有研究资料难以为理解兰科雄蕊发育提供清晰的线索,包括雄蕊的发育模式、散粉单元的形成机制、花药发育的胚胎学特征等。因此,有必要重视兰科雄蕊发育研究,包括扩大取样范围和利用多学科技术方法和修订兰科花形态常用术语等。     

The limited value of traditional morphometric features in stromatoporoid taxonomy

The morphological variation of stromatoporoids, which are solitary organisms, is partitioned into its presumably genetic and environmental components. Potentially heritable, environmentally mediated and residual components of morphological variability were estimated in a test set containing Devonian stromatoporoids of the genus Gerronostromaria from southern Poland using analysis of variance. The taxonomic importance of traditional morphometric features is limited, because they are dominated by the intra‐skeletal component of variance. Conventional metrics were therefore replaced by stereological and textural quantities. Both stereological and textural features are dominated by the inter‐skeletal and inter‐locality components of variation and thus may be valuable in taxonomic and environmental studies of stromatoporoids. Statistical analyses of these characters (principal component analysis and cluster analysis) were performed. Of 13 characters considered most useful in taxonomic studies, only five have been used previously in conventional species definitions.     

Skeletal morphology of two controversial Poecilosclerid genera (Porifera,Demospongiae):Discorhabdella andCrambe

The generaDiscorhabdella andCrambe are characterized by bearing uncommon spicule types, i.e. pseudoastrose acanthostyles and sphaeroclones, respectively. They have traditionally been considered to be unrelated taxa, but the present reexamination made evident that an important amount of skeletal features are shared by both. Some of these morphological features, such as the ornamentation on the point of the ectosomal subtylostyles, are reported for the first time. The study also revealed that a tuberose nature of the tyles of the main choanosomal megascleres could be a common ancestral condition in both genera. The morphology of the multi-toothed anchorate chelae showed a gradual transition across the species, suggesting that the morphological diversity in chelae was generated in these genera through a “palmate-anchorate-arcuate” evolutionary sequence. However, the forward or backward direction of this sequence remained unclear from the available evidence. Important levels of skeletal variability were found to affect many of the skeletal characters, especially in the genusCrambe. In some cases, this variability transgressed the limits theoretically defining a species, making evident that the traditional procedure just based on comparison of the skeletons becomes unreliable when tackling the taxonomy of these genera. Most of the skeletal variability seemed to correspond to genetic polymorphisms, except in the case ofC. acuata. In this taxon, the skeletal variability could be a result of the existence of a cryptic species, originated by a misconceived synonymy betweenC. acuata andC. chelastra. Besides the skeletal variability, the obscure taxonomic meaning of many skeletal features favored the existence of conflicting taxonomic proposals for the suprageneric location of these genera, depending on the author’s criteria. This study made evident that any subsequent attempt of phylogenetic inference should be based on an unweighted analysis of the available skeletal information.     

Morphological evolution of Ceratophryinae (Anura, Neobatrachia)

Body form is one of the major consequences of development, and diversification of body shapes implies developmental changes among species. In anurans, changes in the timing of developmental events or heterochrony, have been emphasized as a source of variation in the patterns of development that has lead to diverse morphology. Herein, different approaches are used to explore morphological traits in members of the Ceratophryinae (Anura: Leptodactylidae), a group of frogs with some features produced by overdevelopment. Cladistic analyses were conducted in order to distinguish the shared history of Ceratophrys, Chacophrys and Lepidobatrachus and other anurans. From these studies, morphological variation of selected skeletal features in ceratophryines reveals the presence of ancient structures, which have been considered lost in the neobatrachian phylogeny, integrated in particular designs. Thin-plate spline morphometric analyses of skull shapes among ceratophryines describe Lepidobatrachus as the most distinctive shape. Moreover, thin-plate spline morphometric analyses among anurans show divergent skull shapes between ceratophryines and other anurans, reflecting that the skull shapes of ceratophryines are a result of peramorphosis (increase of developmental rates). This study represents the first detailed examination of the role of peramorphosis in a clade of anurans.     

An information-theoretical measure of taxonomic diversity

Traditional diversity indices are computed from the abundances of species present and are insensitive to taxonomic differences between species. However, a community in which most species belong to the same genus is intuitively less diverse than another community with a similar number of species distributed more evenly between genera. In this paper, we propose an information-theoretical measure of taxonomic diversity that reflects both the abundances and taxonomic distinctness of the species. Unlike previous measures of taxonomic diversity, such as Rao's quadratic entropy, in this new measure the analyzed taxonomic properties are associated with the single species instead of species pairs.     

A general survey and some taxonomic implications of diterpenes in the Asteraceae

This paper provides a general survey of the occurrence of diterpenes in the Asteraceae. Data on 4351 botanical occurrences were obtained from the literature. These were grouped by skeleton for each genus. Then, the genera were grouped by subtribes, which, in turn, were gathered in tribes, followed by subfamilies. In spite of the low number of species containing diterpenes, it was possible to describe some structural features of these compounds, i.e. the skeletal types in various taxa and the positions in some skeletons that are always oxidized or never undergo oxidation in some genera. Thus, it was verified that: in the subfamily Cichorioideae, only a few of the studied species possess diterpenes, wherein kaurane is the most frequent diterpene skeleton. In the Asteroideae, the presence of diterpenes is much greater than that in the Cichorioideae and Carduoideae. At tribal taxonomic level, for example, the Astereae produce labdanes and clerodanes; Heliantheae and Eupatorieae produce kauranes and labdanes, respectively; and Calenduleae produce pimaranes. Some taxonomic implications are presented.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 147 , 291–308.     

Gen‐morph species concept—A new and integrative species concept for outbreeding organisms

The present article briefly reviewed the prevailing species concepts, especially biological, genetic, evolutionary, phylogenetic, ecological, and several taxonomic species concepts. The former five reflect the properties of species from diverse aspects and in different degrees, while taxonomic species concepts all contain more or less subjective elements, except for Hedberg's taxonomic method (not species concept). So far, there is no species concept that is both theoretically rational and practically operable. The present article outlined recent studies on the genus Paeonia L. (Paeoniaceae) in biology, particularly in morphology, biogeography, molecular phylogeny, and reproductive behavior, which provided insight into the relationship between variation of morphological characteristics and phylogeny. Taking the study on Paeonia L. as a case, referring to studies on some other plant groups, and incorporating the merits of the prevailing species concepts into our consideration, “gen‐morph species concept” is proposed here formally as new for outbreeding organisms. The new species concept has three special features: (i) a bridge linking morphological aspect with genetic and other aspects of species; (ii) proposal of a concrete morphological criterion for species definition, and (iii) considering quantitative and qualitative characteristics as equally valuable for species definition and introducing statistics into the concept to handle such characteristics. Therefore, the gen‐morph species concept is an integrative species concept, both theoretically objective and practically operable.     

Arm joint articulations in the ophiuran brittlestars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea): a morphometric analysis of ontogenetic, serial, and interspecific variation

The ophiuroid arm contains a series of vertebral ossicles that form an articulated internal skeleton. Ontogenetic, serial, and interspecific variation in these skeletal elements are investigated using morphometric data from 35 species of brittle-stars (Order Ophiurae). Multiple ossicles were sampled from each individual and several individuals were sampled from each species to reconstruct serial and ontogenetic changes in vertebral morphology. Within species, ontogenetic and serial allometries are not statistically different. These data support 'Jackson's law of localized stages' (Jackson, 1899; Clark, 1914), which proposes that serial variation along the arm reflects ontogenetic stages of ossicle growth.
A multivariate analysis of interspecific variation shows two major vertebral forms: ossicles with a proximal depression and distal keel, and ossicles lacking these features. Variation within these groups is largely continuous, but individual species show distinct shape differences and unique allometric patterns of serial variation. These results suggest that vertebral ossicle variation among species can be described by: 1) variation in initial shape; and 2) variation in the allometric trajectory along the proximal-distal axis.
In all species, the most proximal ossicles within the disk show a non-keeled morphology. In species with keeled arm ossicles, however, there is an abrupt transition within the disk between non-keeled and keeled vertebral forms. A single ossicle, having features of both vertebral types, occurs at this site. The taxonomic distribution of the two vertebral forms and the anatomical transition between forms is discussed with reference to current classification systems and recent phylogenetic schemes for the Ophiuroidea.     

The larval hyobranchial apparatus of discoglossoid frogs: its structure and bearing on the systematics of the Anura (Amphibia: Anura)

The morphology of the larval hyobranchial apparatus of discoglossoid frog species representing the genera Ascaphus, Alytes, Bombina, and Discoglossus is described and the resulting characters were analysed cladistically. Seven species representing seven major lineages of frogs were included in the cladistic analysis of characters. Several changes in the terminology of the musculature are introduced, and a new interpretation of the subarcualis-muscle system is presented. The phylogenetic analysis suggest that the hyobranchial apparatus was substantially altered in the lineages leading to and within the Pipanura. This notably involved fusion, reduction and loss of skeletal structures and muscles, and splitting of certain muscles into muscle groups. The result confirm previous hypotheses based on the study of adults: discoglossoid species retain the most numlerous plesiomorphic characters among extant ianurans. The larval hyobranchial apparatus is in many features structrually similar to that of urodeles. Many of their character states were most likely present in the most recent common ancestor of all living forgs. The cladistic analysis of 31 characters of ithe larval hyobranchial apparatus supports major clades: Anura, Bombinanura, Pipanura, and Pelobatoidea + Neobatrachia. The cladiostic analysis and interpretation of larval characters is in part compatible with phylogenetic hypotheses based on characters of adults and rRNA sequences, but is in conflict with the Mesobatrachia and Archaeobatrachia concepts of other authors.     

Fast Census of Moth Diversity in the Neotropics: A Comparison of Field-Assigned Morphospecies and DNA Barcoding in Tiger Moths

The morphological species delimitations (i.e. morphospecies) have long been the best way to avoid the taxonomic impediment and compare insect taxa biodiversity in highly diverse tropical and subtropical regions. The development of DNA barcoding, however, has shown great potential to replace (or at least complement) the morphospecies approach, with the advantage of relying on automated methods implemented in computer programs or even online rather than in often subjective morphological features. We sampled moths extensively for two years using light traps in a patch of the highly endangered Atlantic Forest of Brazil to produce a nearly complete census of arctiines (Noctuoidea: Erebidae), whose species richness was compared using different morphological and molecular approaches (DNA barcoding). A total of 1,075 barcode sequences of 286 morphospecies were analyzed. Based on the clustering method Barcode Index Number (BIN) we found a taxonomic bias of approximately 30% in our initial morphological assessment. However, a morphological reassessment revealed that the correspondence between morphospecies and molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) can be up to 94% if differences in genitalia morphology are evaluated in individuals of different MOTUs originated from the same morphospecies (putative cases of cryptic species), and by recording if individuals of different genders in different morphospecies merge together in the same MOTU (putative cases of sexual dimorphism). The results of two other clustering methods (i.e. Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery and 2% threshold) were very similar to those of the BIN approach. Using empirical data we have shown that DNA barcoding performed substantially better than the morphospecies approach, based on superficial morphology, to delimit species of a highly diverse moth taxon, and thus should be used in species inventories.     

Demonstrating morphometric protocols using polystome marginal hooklet measurements

The flexible body structure of polystomes (Monogenea: Polystomatidae) encumbers taxonomic classification and species identification. Large intraspecific and limited interspecific variation in the morphology of polystomes further complicates the identification of species. Apart from employing the host-specific nature of the polystomes, taxonomic characterisation relies heavily on the sclerotised skeletal structures, such as the hamuli and the marginal hooklets. The currently accepted measurement system for marginal hooklets appears to be non-optimal and an improved protocol is needed. This paper describes in detail how such a protocol is found by evaluating various sets of measurements statistically in order to identify the most informative combination of parameters. Thirteen measurements of marginal hooklets from 11 different Southern African Polystoma species were taken and evaluated. A new protocol for discriminating between species of Polystoma Zeder, 1800, that employs only three measurements, is proposed. The value of the processes to derive morphometric protocols, as described, is that it is not restricted to a specific taxon, but that it can be amended and applied to any taxonomic grouping.     

A return-on-investment approach for prioritization of rigorous taxonomic research needed to inform responses to the biodiversity crisis

Global biodiversity loss is a profound consequence of human activity. Disturbingly, biodiversity loss is greater than realized because of the unknown number of undocumented species. Conservation fundamentally relies on taxonomic recognition of species, but only a fraction of biodiversity is described. Here, we provide a new quantitative approach for prioritizing rigorous taxonomic research for conservation. We implement this approach in a highly diverse vertebrate group—Australian lizards and snakes. Of 870 species assessed, we identified 282 (32.4%) with taxonomic uncertainty, of which 17.6% likely comprise undescribed species of conservation concern. We identify 24 species in need of immediate taxonomic attention to facilitate conservation. Using a broadly applicable return-on-investment framework, we demonstrate the importance of prioritizing the fundamental work of identifying species before they are lost.

In order to inform conservation effort, there is urgent need for rigorous taxonomic research to describe species under threat of extinction. Implementation of a new prioritization method identified 282 Australian reptile species needing taxonomic research, of which 17.6% represent undescribed species of conservation concern; this approach could be readily implemented across many faunal groups.     

Rapid radiation and cryptic speciation in squat lobsters of the genus Munida (Crustacea, Decapoda) and related genera in the South West Pacific: molecular and morphological evidence

Squat lobsters (genus Munida and related genera) are among the most diverse taxa of western Pacific crustaceans, though several features of their biology and phylogenetic relationships are unknown. This paper reports an extensive phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial DNA sequences (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and 16S rRNA) and the morphology of 72 species of 12 genera of western Pacific squat lobsters. Our phylogenetic reconstruction using molecular data supports the recent taxonomic splitting of the genus Munida into several genera. Excluding one species (M. callista), the monophyly of the genus Munida was supported by Bayesian analysis of the molecular data. Three moderately diverse genera (Onconida, Paramunida, and Raymunida) also appeared monophyletic, both according to morphological and molecular data, always with high support. However, other genera (Crosnierita and Agononida) seem to be para- or polyphyletic. Three new cryptic species were identified in the course of this study. It would appear that the evolution of this group was marked by rapid speciation and stasis, or certain constraints, in its morphological evolution.