A diverse family of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase genes expressed in pine trees and cell cultures

Using degenerate PCR primers that target evolutionarily conserved sequences in pal genes, we show that in the gymnosperm, Pinus banksiana, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is encoded by a multigene family of at least eight to ten loci. Five classes of pal sequence were easily distinguished among 28 clones sequenced from the products of PCR amplification of haploid genomic DNA. The dominant sequence from each class was named, yielding pal1 to pal5 loci. These genes shared 68.8% to 94.0% nucleotide identity over the 366 bp region compared. All of pal1 to pal5 were expressed in cell suspension cultures treated with a fungal elicitor and all but pal3 were expressed in differentiating xylem tissue of a mature tree. Only pal1 was expressed in unelicited cell cultures. While these P. banksiana genes are quite divergent, they are still more similar to each other than to any angiosperm pal gene cloned to date. For its roles in development and defense, PAL production in P. banksiana is coordinated from a large, diverse multigene family. We discuss evidence suggesting that other pines have similar pal gene family structures.     

Multiple tandem duplication of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase genes in Cucumis sativus L.

Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is the first entry enzyme of the phenylpropanoid pathway, and therefore plays a key role in both plant development and stress defense. In many plants, PAL is encoded by a multi-gene family, and each member is differentially regulated in response to environmental stimuli. In the present study, we report that PAL in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is encoded for by a family of seven genes (designated as CsPAL1-7). All seven CsPALs are arranged in tandem in two duplication blocks, which are located on chromosomes 4 and 6, respectively. The cDNA and protein sequences of the CsPALs share an overall high identity to each other. Homology modeling reveals similarities in their protein structures, besides several slight differences, implying the different activities in conversion of phenylalanine. Phylogenic analysis places CsPAL1-7 in a separate cluster rather than clustering with other plant PALs. Analyses of expression profiles in different cucumber tissues or in response to various stress or plant hormone treatments indicate that CsPAL1-7 play redundant, but divergent roles in cucumber development and stress response. This is consistent with our finding that CsPALs possess overlapping but different cis-elements in their promoter regions. Finally, several duplication events are discussed to explain the evolution of the cucumber PAL genes.     

Sequence and structure of a phenylalanine ammonia-lyase gene from Glycine max.

The gene encoding a key enzyme in anthocyanin biosynthesis, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), was cloned from soybean (Glycine max). The purpose was to obtain a molecular probe to study the organization of this gene family in soybean and to examine novel regulatory mechanisms present in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway of this system. A soybean genomic library was constructed in the bacteriophage vector lambda Charon 35. A PAL cDNA clone from Phaseolus vulgaris was used in screening the library, and two PAL genes were isolated. One gene was sequenced entirely and analyzed by sequence homology to the PAL2 gene of Phaseolus vulgaris. Genomic analysis indicates that PAL sequences of Glycine max exist as a small gene family consisting of only two to three members. The representative PAL gene sequenced (PAL1) has a coding region of 2142 basepairs divided among two exons. The single intron is 1519 basepairs and splits the 131st codon.     

Differential expression of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase genes in barley induced by fungal infection or elicitors

Gene-specific probes were used to assess the expression patterns of four different phenylalanine ammonia-lyase ( pal ) genes in infected or elicitor-treated leaves and suspension-cultured cells of barley. Genes corresponding to hpal2 , hpal3 , hpal4 , and hpal6 were all induced by mercuric chloride and fungal infection by Bipolaris sorokiniana Sacc. (Shoem.) in barley ( Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Pokko) leaves, but with considerable variation in their expression level and timing. The expression patterns of hpal2 and hpal6 were similar, both showing a rapid, strong induction after treatment with mercuric chloride and a slower induction after fungal inoculation, whereas the more divergent hpal3 was induced at a later time and at a lower level after both treatments. Hpal4 was expressed with timing like that of hpal2 and hpal6 in infected or mercuric chloride-treated leaves but its expression was much weaker. Hpal2 and hpal4 were induced in elicitor-treated, suspension-cultured barley cells, whereas the expression of hpal3 was nearly undetectable, and hpal6 was strongly and constitutively present. All pal genes except hpal4 were developmentally regulated, but differentially expressed in various barley tissues. The results suggest that the four pal genes studied here might be responsible for the activation of different branches in the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis of barley.     

Structure, inheritance, and expression of hybrid poplar (Populus trichocarpa x Populus deltoides) phenylalanine ammonia-lyase genes.

A heterologous probe encoding phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) was used to identify PAL clones in cDNA libraries made with RNA from young leaf tissue of two Populus deltoides x P. trichocarpa F1 hybrid clones. Sequence analysis of a 2.4-kb cDNA confirmed its identity as a full-length PAl clone. The predicted amino acid sequence is conserved in comparison with that of PAL genes from several other plants. Southern blot analysis of popular genomic DNA from parental and hybrid individuals, restriction site polymorphism in PAL cDNA clones, and sequence heterogeneity in the 3' ends of several cDNA clones suggested that PAL is encoded by at least two genes that can be distinguished by HindIII restriction site polymorphisms. Clones containing each type of PAL gene were isolated from a poplar genomic library. Analysis of the segregation of PAL-specific HindIII restriction fragment-length polymorphisms demonstrated the existence of two independently segregating PAL loci, one of which was mapped to a linkage group of the poplar genetic map. Developmentally regulated PAL expression in poplar was analyzed using RNA blots. Highest expression was observed in young stems, apical buds, and young leaves. Expression was lower in older stems and undetectable in mature leaves. Cellular localization of PAL expression by in situ hybridization showed very high levels of expression in subepidermal cells of leaves early during leaf development. In stems and petioles, expression was associated with subepidermal cells and vascular tissues.     

光照对大豆叶片苯丙氨酸裂解酶(PAL)基因表达及异黄酮合成的调节

异黄酮是大豆体内特别是种子中积累的一类重要的次生代谢产物,它具有特殊的生物效能。本实验在不同水平（RNA/酶/产物）上研究不同光照条件对大豆叶片异黄酮合成过程中的第一个关键酶苯丙氨酸氨基裂解酶（PAL）基因表达的影响。研究发现,在光照条件下pal表达量比黑暗条件下高,而且其影响程度与品种有关系,种子中异黄酮含量低的品种表现更敏感;其mRNA的合成受红光、蓝光、紫外光的促进,其中紫外光最有效;随着处理时间的延长,mRNA的量和酶活性增加;但是在异黄酮的积累水平上,随着紫外光照射时间的延长,表达量有所下降。     

绿盲蝽取食诱导后棉花叶片内防御酶活力与基因表达量的变化

本研究以抗性棉皖棉小黄花为材料,室内条件下测定绿盲蝽Apolygus lucorum(Mayer-Dür)取食、机械损伤、外源水杨酸和外源茉莉酸甲酯诱导处理后棉叶中苯丙氨酸解氨酶基因(pal)、过氧化物酶基因(pod)和过氧化氢酶基因(cat)的相对表达量,并以健康植株为对照。结果表明:绿盲蝽取食诱导与外源信号物质诱导相似,苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)和过氧化物酶(POD)活性升高,过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性降低;PAL、POD和CAT活力变化与本文中选取的pal、pod和cat基因表达量变化趋势存在差异。本研究说明,绿盲蝽取食既激活了水杨酸介导的防御信号转导途径,也激活了茉莉酸介导的信号转导途径;PAL、POD和CAT 3种酶活力不完全由本文中选取的pal、pod和cat 3个基因所调控。     

Expression in Escherichia coli of catalytically active phenylalanine ammonia-lyase from parsley

In parsley (Petroselinum crispum), phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is encoded by 4 structurally similar genes. The nucleotide sequence of a near full-length cDNA and the deduced amino acid sequence of PAL-4 are presented and compared with the corresponding sequences of PAL-1, a previously described representative of the gene family. Transformation of Escherichia coli cells with PAL-1 or PAL-4 cDNA yielded catalytically active PAL, suggesting that the catalytic center of the enzyme is formed spontaneously rather than by a plant-specific mechanism.     

不同胁迫条件下化感与非化感水稻PAL多基因家族的差异表达

水稻苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)调控酚酸类化感物质的合成代谢。编码PAL的基因是一个基因家族,包含至少11个基因成员,并受不同环境条件的调控。为了明确PAL基因家族中调控水稻化感作用的特定基因成员,本研究运用实时荧光定量PCR技术分析了低氮及稗草胁迫条件下强化感水稻PI312777与非化感水稻Lemont中根系的11个PAL成员基因的表达差异。结果表明,低氮和稗草胁迫条件下,PI312777和Lemont中的 PAL4和PAL10均不表达,其余9个PAL基因成员发生了不同程度的表达变化。其中,PAL11均上调表达,其分别在低氮处理和稗草胁迫的PI312777中上调3.29倍和1.07倍,而在相同处理下的Lemont中上调3.92倍和1.08倍;PAL3和PAL9则仅在低氮和稗草胁迫条件下的PI312777中上调表达,低氮胁迫分别为1.83倍和2.66倍,稗草胁迫为1.46倍和2.65倍;而这两个基因在相同处理下的Lemont中表达下调,低氮胁迫下调1.05和1.24倍,稗草胁迫下调1.14和1.16倍,推测PAL3和PAL9可能与胁迫初期调控水稻化感作用有关。