Intraspecific variation in the population dynamics and growth of the limpet,Cellana tramoserica

Summary Populations of the limpet Cellana tramoserica (Sowerby) from high, mid, and low intertidal regions, and from a subtidal zone, were studied at Cape Banks (N.S.W.), Australia. Individuals from the subtidal population had the largest mean and maximum shell size, the low and high shore populations were intermediate, while the midshore population had both the smallest mean and maximum size. The density of adults showed the reverse trend: the midshore region had the greatest adult population density while the subtidal population had the smallest density. The density of juveniles and recruits was negatively correlated with tidal height in the intertidal areas, but the density of both age-classes was smallest in the subtidal region. The rate of growth of individuals was negatively correlated to the adult density of a site; individuals from the subtidal population grew the fastest, while those from the midshore region grew the slowest. The level of adult mortality of the four populations was similar, with an annual rate of between 50–60%. Juvenile mortality did, however, differ among populations; reduced percentages of juveniles reached adult size in the mid and low shore populations than in the highshore and subtidal populations.The expected lifetime fecundity of individual females differed among the four populations. Subtidal individuals were expected to spawn 40 times the amount of gonad material during their life than were individuals from the midshore population. Individuals from the high and low populations probably spawn 10 times more than those from the midshore region. Differences in the fecundities of individuals were not likely to be the result of genetic differences because experimental transplants and manipulations of density showed that individuals from all the intertidal populations could increase their growth rate to match that of subtidal individuals. The implications of the difference in lifetime fecundity among populations are discussed.     

Intraspecific life history variation in the threatened Louisiana pearlshell mussel, Margaritifera hembeli

1. Margaritifera hembeli is a threatened mussel limited to twenty-two headwater streams in the Red River drainage in central Louisiana, USA. This study evaluated intraspecific variation in density, growth, size and age structure and shell morphology among several isolated populations. This study also identified the host fish and considered the role that host fish distribution played in determining mussel recruitment. 2. Mussels were aggregated in beds and average densities differed among streams. However, maximum mussel densities in beds were similar in all streams; the observed maxima were among the largest for monospecific mussel beds in North America, often exceeding 300 individuals m^–2. 3. The maximum size reached by individuals differed among streams, but all size distributions were skewed towards larger individuals. A repeated measures analysis of tagged mussels in four populations, over a 2-year period, indicated 2-fold differences in growth rates among streams, and significant variation among years. Growth rates were not affected by local population density. Maximum ages reached, determined indirectly by comparing growth rates, varied from 45 to 75 years. A canonical discriminant analysis also revealed significant differences in shell morphology across populations. 4. Half of the populations showed evidence of recent recruitment, and these sites had fish assemblages dominated by the host fish Noturus phaeus (Taylor). Host fish abundance appeared more important than adult mussel density in explaining recruitment patterns. 5. Considerable intraspecific life history variation suggests that management strategies for this species should be stream-specific, with emphasis on ensuring long-term habitat stability.     

Habitat-specific size structure variations in periwinkle populations (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Littorina littorea)</Emphasis> caused by biotic factors

Shell size distribution patterns of marine gastropod populations may vary considerably across different environments. We investigated the size and density structure of genetically continuous periwinkle populations (Littorina littorea) on an exposed rocky and a sheltered sedimentary environment on two nearby islands in the south-eastern North Sea (German Bight). On the sedimentary shore, periwinkle density (917 ± 722 individuals m⁻²) was about three times higher than on the rocky shore (296 ± 168 individuals m⁻²). Mean (9.8 ± 3.9 mm) and maximum (22 mm) shell size of L. littorea on the sedimentary shore were smaller than on the rocky shore (21.5 ± 4.2 and 32 mm, respectively), where only few small snails were found. Additionally, periwinkle shells were thicker and stronger on the rocky than on the sedimentary shore. To ascertain mechanisms responsible for differences in population structures, we examined periwinkles in both environments for growth rate, predation pressure, infection with a shell boring polychaete (Polydora ciliata) and parasitic infestation by trematodes. A crosswise transplantation experiment revealed better growth conditions on the sedimentary than on the rocky shore. However, crab abundance and prevalence of parasites and P. ciliata in adult snails were higher on the sedimentary shore. Previous investigations showed that crabs prefer large periwinkles infested with P. ciliata. Thus, we suggest that parasites and shell boring P. ciliata in conjunction with an increased crab predation pressure are responsible for low abundances of large periwinkles on the sedimentary shore while high wave exposure may explain low densities of juvenile L. littorea on the rocky shore. We conclude that biotic factors may strongly contribute to observed differences in size structure of the L. littorea populations studied on rocky and sedimentary shores.     

塔里木河上游胡杨种群结构与动态

采用样带调查法对塔里木河上游3个断面8.5 hm2天然胡杨林进行野外调查,绘制了胡杨种群年龄结构图和存活曲线,结合种群动态量化方法与时间序列预测,分析种群结构与动态特征。结果表明:塔里木河上游胡杨种群密度随径级增大而减小,自疏指数接近-3/2,个体胸径达24 cm后种群密度保持相对稳定。中、下段胡杨种群年龄结构呈金字塔型,幼龄级所占比例较大、林分年轻;存活曲线为Deevey C型,且动态指数0,为增长种群。受所处生境条件影响,上段不同生境胡杨种群年龄结构差异明显。阿瓦提县胡杨种群结构呈金字塔型,幼龄级比例高达77.2%,存活曲线属Deevey C型,为增长种群;南口镇与托海乡胡杨种群结构呈壶型,幼龄级比例极低、中大龄级比例高达84.7%,存活曲线属Deevey A型,为衰退种群;沙黑里克镇胡杨种群结构呈钟型,存活曲线属Deevey A型,为暂时稳定种群。种群数量动态与时间序列分析表明,中、下段胡杨更新资源丰富,未来种群能够稳定增长;上段南口镇、托海乡与沙黑里克镇幼龄级数量随时间推移减少,种群向大老龄级发展,未来种群将走向衰退。总之,上段胡杨种群因更新资源不足而趋于衰退,未来保持适当的人工辅助恢复措施和加强保护现有植株及其生境是保持胡杨种群自然更新和进行种群恢复的关键。     

Simulating harvesting scenarios towards the sustainable use of mangrove forest plantations

Mangrove forests appear among the most productive ecosystems on earth and provide important goods and services to tropical coastal populations. Thirty-five percent of mangrove forest areas have been lost worldwide in the last two decades. Management measures could be an option to combine human use and conservation of mangroves. These measures can be improved if their impacts are assessed before they are performed. By doing so, the best management option out of a set of all potential options can be selected in advance. The mangrove model—KiWi—has been proven to be suitable for analyzing mangrove forest dynamics in the neotropics. Here, the model was applied to mangrove management scenarios. For this, the model was parameterized to Rhizophora apiculata, one of the most common mangrove species planted in Asia for timber production. It is thus the first simulation model describing Asian mangrove plantations. The recently developed Pattern Oriented Modelling approach was used to find those parameters fitting best density patterns and dbh (diameter at breast height) size classes reported in literature. The results demonstrated that the KiWi model was able to: (1) reproduce the growth patterns of a mono-specific plantation of R. apiculata in terms of forest density and size class distribution and (2) can provide criteria for the selection of a thinning strategy within a harvesting cycle.     

Estimating abundance and spatial distribution patterns of the bubble crab Dotilla fenestrata (Crustacea: Brachyura)

Abstract The bubble crab Dotilla fenestrata forms very dense populations on the sand flats of the eastern coast of Inhaca Island, Mozambique, making it an interesting biological model to examine spatial distribution patterns and test the relative efficiency of common sampling methods. Due to its apparent ecological importance within the sandy intertidal community, understanding the factors ruling the dynamics of Dotilla populations is also a key issue. In this study, different techniques of estimating crab density are described, and the trends of spatial distribution of the different population categories are shown. The studied populations are arranged in discrete patches located at the well‐drained crests of nearly parallel mega sand ripples. For a given sample size, there was an obvious gain in precision by using a stratified random sampling technique, considering discrete patches as strata, compared to the simple random design. Density average and variance differed considerably among patches since juveniles and ovigerous females were found clumped, with higher densities at the lower and upper shore levels, respectively. Burrow counting was found to be an adequate method for large‐scale sampling, although consistently underestimating actual crab density by nearly half. Regression analyses suggested that crabs smaller than 2.9 mm carapace width tend to be undetected in visual burrow counts. A visual survey of sampling plots over several patches of a large Dotilla population showed that crab density varied in an interesting oscillating pattern, apparently following the topography of the sand flat. Patches extending to the lower shore contained higher densities than those mostly covering the higher shore. Within‐patch density variability also pointed to the same trend, but the density increment towards the lowest shore level varied greatly among the patches compared.     

广西北部湾典型海岛红树林的结构特征、空间格局及种间种内关联性

为研究广西北部湾茅尾海自然保护区海岛红树林群落的空间点格局和演替规律,在典型红树林海岛设置调查样地,以样地内的桐花树(Aegiceras corniculatum)、秋茄(Kandelia obovata)、白骨壤(Avicennia marina)等红树植物为研究对象,构建单变量函数的完全空间随机模型、异质泊松模型与双变量函数的环形转变模型,分析3种红树林种群的结构特征、空间格局及种内种间关联性。结果发现：(1)桐花树种群的小树和中树的个体数目较多,种群年龄结构呈金字塔型,种群处于增长状态;秋茄种群的中树个体数目较多,种群结构呈钟型,种群数量处于稳定状态;白骨壤个体数相对较少,且幼树较少老树较多,种群更新受阻,种群结构呈纺锤型,属于衰退型种群。(2)红树林群落整体上呈现出空间集聚的分布特征,从不同种群的集聚程度来看：桐花树>白骨壤>秋茄。(3)随着空间尺度的增大,红树林群落在空间分布上依次表现出聚集、随机和均匀3种特征。(4)桐花树与秋茄、白骨壤的种间关系随着尺度增加均表现为空间无关联性-空间负关联性-空间无关联性的演变特征,秋茄与白骨壤的种间关系则为全尺度的空间无关联性。(5)桐花树种内不同龄级之间存在空间正关联性、空间无关联性和空间负关联性,秋茄种内不同龄级之间均表现出空间无联性,白骨壤种群则在不同龄级之间均出现空间正关联性。(6)红树植物种群的空间格局受到自身繁殖特性、生境异质性、种内和种间竞争、病虫害等多种因素的影响。红树林人工种植和恢复需要结合沿海地区的自然生态条件,按照红树林种群的适应形态学特点、群落类型和自然演替规律,种植乡土红树植物,适当引进外来物种,研制出近似天然的人工红树林林分结构,提高群落的生物多样性和群落稳定性,发挥红树林湿地生态系统的生态环境效应。     

Are mangroves in the tropical Atlantic ripe for invasion? Exotic mangrove trees in the forests of South Florida

Two species of mangrove trees of Indo-Pacific origin have naturalized in tropical Atlantic mangrove forests in South Florida after they were planted and nurtured in botanic gardens. Two Bruguiera gymnorrhiza trees that were planted in the intertidal zone in 1940 have given rise to a population of at least 86 trees growing interspersed with native mangrove species Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa along 100 m of shoreline; the population is expanding at a rate of 5.6% year⁻¹. Molecular genetic analyses confirm very low genetic diversity, as expected from a population founded by two individuals. The maximum number of alleles at any locus was three, and we measured reduced heterozygosity compared to native-range populations. Lumnitzera racemosa was introduced multiple times during the 1960s and 1970s, it has spread rapidly into a forest composed of native R. mangle, A. germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus and now occupies 60,500 m² of mangrove forest with stem densities of 24,735 ha⁻¹. We estimate the population growth rate of Lumnitzera racemosa to be between 17 and 23% year⁻¹. Populations of both species of naturalized mangroves are dominated by young individuals. Given the long life and water-dispersed nature of propagules of the two exotic species, it is likely that they have spread beyond our survey area. We argue that the species-depauperate nature of tropical Atlantic mangrove forests and close taxonomic relatives in the more species-rich Indo-Pacific region result in the susceptibility of tropical Atlantic mangrove forests to invasion by Indo-Pacific mangrove species.     

Population density, sex ratio, body size and fluctuating asymmetry of Ceroglossus chilensis (Carabidae) in the fragmented Maulino forest and surrounding pine plantations

Habitat fragmentation results in new environmental conditions that may stress resident populations. Such stress may be reflected in demographical or morphological changes in the individuals inhabiting those landscapes. This study evaluates the effects of fragmentation of the Maulino forest on population density, sex ratio, body size, and fluctuating asymmetry (FA) of the endemic carabid Ceroglossus chilensis. Individuals of C. chilensis were collected during 2006 in five locations at Los Queules National Reserve (continuous forest), in five forest fragments and in five areas of surrounding pine plantations (matrix). In each location, once a season, 40 pitfall traps (20 in the centre, 20 in the edge), were opened for 72 h. Population density of C. chilensis was higher in the small fragments than in the pine matrix, with intermediate densities in the continuous forest; sex ratio did not differ significantly from 1:1 in the three habitats. Individuals from the centre of fragments were smaller than those from the centre of continuous forest, and FA did not vary significantly among habitats. These results suggest that small forest fragments maintain dense populations of C. chilensis and therefore they must be considered in conservation strategies. Although the decrease of the body size suggests that small remnants should be connected by managing the structure of the surrounding matrix, facilitating the dispersion of this carabid across the landscape and avoiding possible antagonistic interactions inside small fragments.     

Sexual reproduction, clonal diversity and genetic differentiation in patchily distributed populations of the temperate forest herb Paris quadrifolia (Trilliaceae)

Clonal plant species have been shown to adopt different strategies to persist in heterogeneous environments by changing relative investments in sexual reproduction and clonal propagation. As a result, clonal diversity and genetic variation may be different along environmental gradients. We examined the regional and local population structure of the clonal rhizomatous forest herb Paris quadrifolia in a complex of forest fragments in Voeren (Belgium). Relationships between population size (the number of shoots), shoot density (the number of shoots per m²) and local growth conditions were investigated for 47 populations. Clonal diversity and genetic variation within and among 19 populations were investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphism markers. To assess the importance of sexual reproduction, seed set, seed weight and germination success were determined in 18 populations. As predicted, local growth conditions largely affected population distribution, size and density of P. quadrifolia. Populations occurring in moist and relatively productive sites contained significantly more shoots. Here, shoots were also much more sparsely distributed compared to populations occurring in dry and relatively unproductive sites, where shoots showed a strongly aggregated distribution pattern. Clonal diversity was relatively high, compared with other clonal species (G/N ratio = 0.43 and Simpson’s D=0.81). Clonal diversity significantly (P<0.01) decreased with increasing shoot density while molecular genetic variation was significantly (P<0.01) affected by population size and local environmental conditions. Lack of recruitment and out-competition of less-adapted genotypes may explain the decreased genetic variation in dry sites. Analysis of molecular variance revealed significant genetic variation among populations (Φ _ST=0.42, P<0.001), whereas pairwise genetic distances were not correlated to geographic distances, suggesting that gene flow among populations is limited. Finally, the number of generative shoots, the number of seeds per fruit and seed weight were significantly and positively related to population size and local growth conditions. We conclude that under stressful conditions populations of clonal forest plant species can slowly evolve into remnant populations characterized by low levels of genetic variation and limited sexual reproduction. Conservation of suitable habitat conditions is therefore a prerequisite for effective long-term conservation of clonal forest plant species.     

Demographic population structure of black howler monkeys in fragmented and continuous forest in Chiapas,Mexico: Implications for conservation

For wild primates, demography studies are increasingly recognized as necessary for assessing the viability of vulnerable populations experiencing rapid environmental change. In particular, anthropogenic changes such as habitat loss and fragmentation can cause ecological and behavioral changes in small, isolated populations, which may, over time, alter population density and demographic structure (age/sex classes and group composition) in fragment populations relative to continuous forest populations. We compared our study population of Endangered black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) in 34 forest fragments around Palenque National Park (PNP), Mexico (62 groups, 407 individuals), to the adjacent population in PNP, protected primary forest (21 groups, 134 individuals), and to previous research on black howlers in fragments in our study area (18 groups, 115 individuals). We used χ² and Mann–Whitney U tests to address the questions: (a) what is the current black howler demographic population structure in unprotected forest fragments around PNP? (b) How does it compare to PNP's stable, continuous population? (c) How has it changed over time? Compared to the PNP population, the fragment populations showed higher density, a significantly lower proportion of multimale groups, and significantly fewer adult males per group. The population's age/sex structure in the fragmented landscape has been stable over the last 17 years, but differed in a higher proportion of multifemale groups, higher density, and higher patch occupancy in the present. In the context of conservation, some of our results may be positive as they indicate possible population growth over time. However, long-term scarcity of adult males in fragments and associated effects on population demographic structure might be cause for concern, in that it may affect gene flow and genetic diversity. The scarcity of adult males might stem from males experiencing increased mortality while dispersing in the fragmented landscape, whereas females might be becoming more philopatric in fragments.     

Spatial structure of a leaf-removing crab population in a mangrove of North-Brazil

The leaf-removing decapod crab, Ucides cordatus plays a key role as ecological engineer in Brazilian mangrove ecosystems. We analyzed the spatial distribution of a specific population at two different scales to observe how individual behavior could alter spatial population structure. First, we conducted a spatial point pattern analysis of the burrow entrances and the Rhizophora mangle prop roots on the mangrove floor at a scale of few meters. Secondly, we analyzed at a large scale (10–100 m) the potential effects of surface elevation, light intensity, prop root coverage, species of neighboring tree (R. mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia germinans) and pneumatophore density on the size and number of burrow entrances. At the same large scale, we conducted an analysis of clustering of the crabs around the R. mangle trees. At small scale, the burrow entrances, although aggregated around the prop roots, showed a regularly spaced distribution (∼25 cm) signaling an intraspecific competition among the crabs. At large scale, crabs preferred to install their burrows at an intermediate level of surface elevation and prop root coverage, and in R. mangle-dominated areas. At the same kind of habitats, the largest burrows, and thus potentially the largest crabs, were found in higher number than on other habitats. The R. mangle-dominated areas preference was confirmed by an aggregating around R. mangle trees in R. mangle-dominated forest, but only of large individuals in L. racemosa-dominated forest. These observations lead us to the definition of a preferred habitat for U. cordatus. Competition leading to the small-scale regular patterns was proposed as an explanation for exclusion of smaller crabs from preferred habitats seen at large scale. We hypothesize that this preferred habitat might explain at regional scale the variation of U. cordatus importance in Neotropical mangroves.     

The importance of mangrove species association to the population biology of the sesarmine crabs Parasesarma affinis and Perisesarma bidens

The population biology of two sesarmine crabs, Perisesarma bidens andParasesarma affinis, was studied over a two-year period in twomangrove forests, one dominated by Kandelia candel and the other by Avicennia marina. Despite the fact that the mangrove forests werecontiguous, shared the same water supply and were less than 20 cmdifferent in tidal position, significant differences in population biology ofboth crab species were recorded. Individuals of both species associated withthe topographically higher Kandelia candel forest were more abundant,had a higher tissue organic content, higher gonosomatic and hepatosomaticindices than their counterparts in the Avicennia marina forest. Femaleindividuals of both species were also larger in size in the Kandeliaforest. These differences result in higher secondary production of the crabsat the Kandelia forest. By contrast, association with different mangrovespecies did not result in significant differences in the sex ratio, growth andreproductive periodicity, and size-specific reproductive output of the crabs.The results suggest significant influence by the associated mangrove specieson the population biology of the crabs, through processes such asmodification of the physical habitat fabric and/or provision of trophicresources of different quality and quantity by the mangroves. This influencefurther reiterates the bi-directional nature of mangrove-crab interactions andthe need to consider these intricate interactions in future studies on tropicalmangrove structure and function.     

Genetic variation and geographical structure of five mouse-sized opossums (Marsupialia, Didelphidae) throughout the Guiana Region

Aim and location To study the patterns of genetic variation and geographical structure of five forest‐dwelling didelphid species distributed throughout the Guiana Region (Marmosops parvidens, M. pinheiroi, Monodelphis brevicaudata, Marmosa murina, Micoureus demerarae) and place the results for wide‐ranging species (M. murina, M. demerarae) in the broader geographical context of the rest of the taxon ranges based on published data. Methods Variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene were analysed in order to assess intra‐specific sequence divergence as well as haplotypic and nucleotide diversity among populations. Relationships between haplotypes were inferred by cladistic (maximum parsimony) and probabilistic (maximum likelihood) approaches, allowing comparisons between tree topologies and patterns of populations geographical distribution. Results Phylogenetic analysis of the Guiana Region populations suggest the lack of common patterns of geographical structure among mouse‐sized opossums except for both Marmosops species. Marmosops parvidens and M. pinheiroi showed individuals from Surinam strongly related with those from Guyana, and haplotypes from French Guiana having a basal position. Concerning Micoureus demerarae, haplotypes from Venezuela were positioned as ancestral, in contrast with Monodelphis brevicaudata, whose French Guiana haplotypes were clustered in a basal position. No evidence of geographical structure was observed for Marmosa murina. Genetic variation within Guiana Region populations fluctuated between 1% for M. murina and 7% in the case of M. brevicaudata. Regarding the widely distributed species, phylogeographical structure at the scale of the Amazon Basin suggests that Guiana Region populations are the sister group of south‐eastern Amazonian and Atlantic Forest populations, thus resulting in an eastern clade well separated from the western Amazonian regions. Main conclusions Monophyly of mouse‐sized opossums haplotypes over the Guiana Region confirms the presence of a well‐differentiated zoogeographical area relative to other Amazonia bioregions. Low genetic diversity among Guiana Region samples suggests a relatively recent origin of populations dating from later Miocene and Pleistocene periods. Moreover, nucleotide and haplotypic diversity values suggest an evolutionary scenario of rapid population growth and dispersal over the Guiana territory, from an ancestral population with small effective size. Dispersal events – rather than vicariance – seem to be responsible for the present genetic and phylogeographical patterns observed in the Guiana Region.     

Effects of plant density and age on the mating system of Kandelia candel Druce (Rhizophoraceae), a viviparous mangrove species

Mating system is an important factor affecting gene flow and genetic structure of plant populations. Based on identification of chlorophyll-deficient offsprings on heterozygous individuals, selfing rates were estimated for Kandelia candel, a viviparous mangrove species. Outcrossing rates were significantly decreased when population was thinned, indicating that plant density plays an important role in plant reproductive features. Selfing rate of young population was significantly higher than that of mature population, due to pollen flow barriers in young population, created by dense leaves and twigs.     

Population densities of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) on Bacan and Sulawesi,Indonesia: Effects of habitat disturbance and hunting

Population surveys of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) were conducted on the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi and Bacan in 1992–1994 to assess the status of natural populations and determine habitat and anthropogenic factors affecting their population densities. We surveyed five sites for primates, including undisturbed and disturbed habitats. Data were collected on habitat structure and composition at two undisturbed and one disturbed forest site in which the primates were surveyed. The highest density of macaques was found in primary forest at Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve on Bacan (170.3 individuals/km²). Population density in logged forest on Bacan was high but significantly less than primary forest (133.4 individuals/km²). The high density of crested black macaques in primary forest on Bacan is best explained by the high carrying capacity found in primary forest. The lower food quantity and quality of food resources found in logged forest correlated with lower primate densities compared to primary forest. However, the large population of macaques in logged forest demonstrates the conservation value of such forest. Densities on Sulawesi at Tangkoko-Batuangas-DuaSudara Nature Reserve (TBDS) showed a continuing decline since earlier surveys. Primate densities were highest near the protected center of Tangkoko Reserve (66.7 individuals/km²). The peripheral areas of Batuangas and DuaSudara, even though adjacent and continuous, showed lower population densities of 46.4 and 23.5 individuals/km², respectively. The best explanation for the continued decline of Macaca nigra populations at TBDS is hunting. Unless conservation measures are implemented immediately, M. nigra on Sulawesi risks extinction in the near future. Am. J. Primatol. 44:89–106, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Variability in the reproductive effort of the limpet,Cellana tramoserica

Summary The reproductive effort of the limpet, Cellana tramoserica was investigated in high, mid, and low intertidal areas of the rocky shore as well as in a subtidal population. The reproductive effort of individuals within a population was independent of age. There was, however, a noticeable difference among populations with respect to the relative amount of gonad material spawned per year. The individuals from the subtidal population had the greatest reproductive effort, spawning the equivalent of 101% of their somatic weight per year, while the low, mid and high intertidal populations spawned the equivalent of 66%, 20%, 51%, respectively.Experimental transplants showed that individuals from all three intertidal populations increased their reproductive effort to match that of subtidal individuals. It was unlikely, therefore, that the observed patterns were the result of genetic differences among the populations. The reproductive effort of the populations was also not correlated with the rate of mortality of the adults in the four populations. The observed differences could be explained by a combination of the availability of food and intraspecific competition. The flexibility in the reproductive pattern of Cellana is hypothesised to be a result of this species having a dispersive larval stage, which may result in selection for plasticity of reproductive allocation, depending upon the environmental conditions at the site of settlement and growth to adult size.     

Survey of Hylobates agilis albibarbis in a logged peat-swamp forest: Sabangau catchment, Central Kalimantan

Few data are available on gibbon populations in peat-swamp forest. In order to assess the importance of this habitat for gibbon conservation, a population of Hylobates agilis albibarbis was surveyed in the Sabangau peat-swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. This is an area of about 5,500 km² of selectively logged peat-swamp forest, which was formally gazetted as a national park during 2005. The study was conducted during June and July 2004 using auditory sampling methods. Five sample areas were selected and each was surveyed for four consecutive days by three teams of researchers at designated listening posts. Researchers recorded compass bearings of, and estimated distances to, singing groups. Nineteen groups were located. Population density is estimated to be 2.16 (±0.46) groups/km². Sightings occurring either at the listening posts or that were obtained by tracking in on calling groups yielded a mean group size of 3.4 individuals, hence individual gibbon density is estimated to be 7.4 (±1.59) individuals/km². The density estimates fall at the mid-range of those calculated for other gibbon populations, thus suggesting that peat-swamp forest is an important habitat for gibbon conservation in Borneo. A tentative extrapolation of results suggests a potential gibbon population size of 19,000 individuals within the mixed-swamp forest habitat sub-type in the Sabangau. This represents one of the largest remaining continuous populations of Bornean agile gibbons. The designation of the Sabangau forest as a national park will hopefully address the problem of illegal logging and hunting in the region. Further studies should note any difference in gibbon density post protection.     

Genetic variation, genetic structure and effective population size in the tropical holoparasitic endophyteBdallophyton bambusarum (Rafflesiaceae)

The genetic population structure inBdallophyton bambusarum, an endoparasite, was studied in ten subpopulations from a subdeciduous tropical forest in Veracruz Mexico. The sample was analyzed using seven polymorphic loci in cellulose acetate electrophoresis. Isozyme data indicated that the subpopulations ofB. bambusarum contained high genetic variability (H_ep = 0.452 ± 0.045, S.E.). Our analysis suggests that almost each inflorescence ofB. bambusarum is an individual. The subpopulations studied were genetically similar (average Nei's genetic identity 0.941 ± 0.051 and F _st values 0.097 ± 0.026), suggesting that genetic differentiation among subpopulations was small. Direct estimates of effective population size was derived from observations of three fluorescent dyes, and from the genetic neighborhood area derived from these data. The neighborhood area, multiplied by the total density of individuals, gave an N_e = 124.84 plants, and when corrected to consider the proportion of males and females gave an N_e = 118.59 individuals. An indirect estimate of Nm was obtained from the F _st values (mean Nm=2.037), giving an indirect estimate of the effective population size N_b = 12.8 individuals. Both values are relatively high when compared to other plant studies. The gene flow and/or effective populations size of the studied subpopulations ofB. bambusarum are believed to be large enough to prevent differentiation among subpopulations due to genetic drift.