生物膜结构研究的一些进展

膜蛋白三维结构的解析存在很多困难.最近几年由于一些通道(如K⁺通道,Cl^-通道,水通道Aquaporin 1等)和泵（如Ca^2＋泵）的结晶获得成功,这些膜蛋白具有原子分辨率三维结构的解析才得以完成,从而基本阐明一些极性分子和离子选择性通过生物膜的分子机理.在膜脂结构方面,动物细胞质膜膜脂的分布是不均匀的.近年来已多方面证明,质膜具有一些被命名为“脂筏（lipid rafts）”和“质膜微囊（Caveolae）”的微区.它们富含鞘脂和胆固醇。简单介绍了这些脂质微区的大小、组分以及动态变化.根据研究结果,这类脂质微区含有大量信号分子,很可能具有信号传递中心的作用.此外,对脂筏在膜运送过程中的作用也进行一些评述.     

脂筏在病毒感染中的作用

脂筏是细胞膜上富含鞘脂和胆固醇的微区结构,广泛分布于细胞的膜系统.脂筏中含有诸多信号分子和免疫受体,在细胞的生命活动中扮演非常重要的角色.更为重要的是,脂筏为细胞表面发生的蛋白质-蛋白质和蛋白质-脂类分子间的相互作用提供了平台.研究表明,很多病毒可以利用细胞膜表面的脂筏结构介导其侵入宿主细胞,一些病毒可以借助脂筏结构完成病毒颗粒的组装和出芽.本文将综述不同类型的病毒如SV40、HIV等借助脂筏完成入侵以及流感病毒等利用脂筏完成组装和出芽的证据及机理,并概述目前研究病毒与脂筏相互作用的方法及存在的问题.深入研究脂筏在病毒感染中的作用,将有助于对病毒与宿主细胞的相互作用的理解,从而可能发现新的、有效的对抗病毒的方法。     

用鞘磷脂作为标志分子鉴定脂筏

脂筏是质膜双层中富含鞘脂、胆固醇及特殊蛋白质的质膜微区.对其功能的研究,首先要对其进行分离和鉴定.常利用密度梯度超速离心将其分离,然后以脂筏中富含的神经节苷脂GM₁作为标志分子,利用荧光或生物素标记的霍乱毒素-B亚基进行亲和标记来鉴定脂筏.但这一鉴定方法操作复杂、费时、易对环境造成污染,所用关键试剂霍乱毒素不易获得,再加上一些组织GM₁含量甚微或不含GM₁,使其应用受到局限.为建立一个特异性高又对各种组织广泛适应的脂筏鉴定方法.对两种细胞系脂筏的脂类组分进行了分析.结果发现,可用鞘磷脂作为脂筏的特异性标志分子,采用高效薄层层析技术对脂筏进行鉴定.     

Ca2+诱导的synaptophysin I蛋白的脂筏分布

文章研究了Ca2 对synaptophysin Ⅰ(Syp Ⅰ)蛋白的脂筏分布的影响.研究结果证明,Syp Ⅰ蛋白的脂筏分布明显受到Ca2 的特异性调控.在无Ca2 的条件下,Syp Ⅰ为典型的非脂筏蛋白;而在低浓度Ca2 的条件下,Syp Ⅰ可以转变为脂筏结合蛋白.文章还研究了Syp Ⅰ在Ca2 的诱导下进入脂筏膜微区的分子机制.研究结果表明,Syp Ⅰ在Ca2 的诱导下进入脂筏这一现象依赖于其C末端胞质区,确定了Syp Ⅰ的胞质区在这种调节中的重要性.     

Ca2+诱导的synaptophysinⅠ蛋白的脂筏分布

文章研究了Ca2+对synaptophysin Ⅰ(Syp Ⅰ)蛋白的脂筏分布的影响.研究结果证明,Syp Ⅰ蛋白的脂筏分布明显受到Ca2+的特异性调控.在无Ca2+的条件下,Syp Ⅰ为典型的非脂筏蛋白;而在低浓度Ca2+的条件下,Syp Ⅰ可以转变为脂筏结合蛋白.文章还研究了Syp Ⅰ在Ca2+的诱导下进入脂筏膜微区的分子机制.研究结果表明,Syp Ⅰ在Ca2+的诱导下进入脂筏这一现象依赖于其C末端胞质区,确定了Syp Ⅰ的胞质区在这种调节中的重要性.     

脂筏的结构与功能

脂筏是膜脂双层内含有特殊脂质及蛋白质的微区.小窝是脂筏的一种类型,由胆固醇、鞘脂及蛋白质组成,以小窝蛋白为标记蛋白.脂筏的组分和结构特点有利于蛋白质之间相互作用和构象转化,可以参与信号转导和细胞蛋白质运转.一些感染性疾病、心血管疾病、肿瘤、肌营养不良症及朊病毒病等可能与脂筏功能紊乱有着密切的关系.     

脂筏、紧密连接和血脑屏障的关系

血脑屏障破坏是缺血性脑卒中急性期发生脑水肿及神经元毒性损害的核心病理过程之一,目前尚无特效保护方法。血脑屏障通透性调节的中心环节是内皮细胞的紧密连接,而紧密连接结构蛋白表达水平和位置分布的变化与脑微血管通透性的改变及脑水肿的程度密切相关。脂筏是高流动性的细胞膜脂质双层内富含胆固醇的特殊脂质和蛋白质的动态微区,它参与细胞蛋白转运。血脑屏障上有大量的脂筏存在,紧密连接结构蛋白分布于脂筏中,其功能受胆固醇调节,且脂筏上紧密结合的脂质有利于蛋白质的寡聚化。因此,基于脂筏调节血脑屏障紧密连接可能为脑保护研究提供新的药物靶点。     

抗体交联作用促进Nephrin簇集于细胞膜脂筏微区

为研究nephrin在细胞膜上的表达特点,构建nephrin和podocin的表达质粒,转染COS-7细胞。采用胞吞摄取和抗体交联实验,发现nephrin的内吞囊泡与GM1神经节苷脂的十价配体CTxB及podocin囊泡共存;特异性抗体交联促进nephrin与脂筏(lipid raft)标记物CTxB共同聚集于脂筏微区;蔗糖密度梯度离心显示无论是表达nephrin的COS-7细胞还是大鼠肾小球细胞中部分nephrin与脂筏标志物小窝蛋白(caveolin)等均存在于去污剂抵抗膜成分中。结果提示nephrin为脂筏相关蛋白,并且特异抗体交联促进nephrin聚集于脂筏微区。     

脂筏与T细胞信号转导

抗原提呈细胞将抗原加工处理后通过MHCⅠ/MHCⅡ类分子提呈供T细胞识别。TCR对抗原的识别引起一系列下游信号事件的发生,最终使T细胞激活,但对TCR复合物结合抗原后引起胞内区磷酸化的早期事件机制还不是很清楚。最近的研究揭示脂筏参与了这一早期信号事件的发生。脂筏是一种膜脂双层内含有的特殊微区,T细胞膜表面参与T细胞激活的各种关键信号分子都定位于脂筏。T细胞激活过程中脂筏通过聚集和重分配形成一个信号转导的平台。     

脂筏在阿尔茨海默症中的作用

脂筏(lipid raft)是细胞膜中富含胆固醇的功能性微区,在信号转导、物质运输等方面发挥着重要作用。大量证据显示脂筏与阿尔茨海默症(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)的致病机理密切相关。β-淀粉样肽(amyloidβ-peptide,Aβ)的异常代谢和聚集可能是AD的致病主因,而脂筏不但是Aβ产生的主要场所,还能调节Aβ的聚集行为及神经毒性,因而在AD的病理过程中扮演着关键角色。     

Detergent-insoluble glycosphingolipid/cholesterol-rich membrane domains, lipid rafts and caveolae (review).

Within the cell membrane glycosphingolipids and cholesterol cluster together in distinct domains or lipid rafts, along with glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins in the outer leaflet and acylated proteins in the inner leaflet of the bilayer. These lipid rafts are characterized by insolubility in detergents such as Triton X-100 at 4 degrees C. Studies on model membrane systems have shown that the clustering of glycosphingolipids and GPI-anchored proteins in lipid rafts is an intrinsic property of the acyl chains of these membrane components, and that detergent extraction does not artefactually induce clustering. Cholesterol is not required for clustering in model membranes but does enhance this process. Single particle tracking, chemical cross-linking, fluorescence resonance energy transfer and immunofluorescence microscopy have been used to directly visualize lipid rafts in membranes. The sizes of the rafts observed in these studies range from 70-370 nm, and depletion of cellular cholesterol levels disrupts the rafts. Caveolae, flask-shaped invaginations of the plasma membrane, that contain the coat protein caveolin, are also enriched in cholesterol and glycosphingolipids. Although caveolae are also insoluble in Triton X-100, more selective isolation procedures indicate that caveolae do not equate with detergent-insoluble lipid rafts. Numerous proteins involved in cell signalling have been identified in caveolae, suggesting that these structures may function as signal transduction centres. Depletion of membrane cholesterol with cholesterol binding drugs or by blocking cellular cholesterol biosynthesis disrupts the formation and function of both lipid rafts and caveolae, indicating that these membrane domains are involved in a range of biological processes.     

Lipid dependence of ABC transporter localization and function

Lipid rafts have been implicated in many cellular functions, including protein and lipid transport and signal transduction. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters have also been localized in these membrane domains. In this review the evidence for this specific localization will be evaluated and discussed in terms of relevance to ABC transporter function. We will focus on three ABC transporters of the A, B and C subfamily, respectively. Two of these transporters are relevant to multidrug resistance in tumor cells (Pgp/ABCB1 and MRP1/ABCC1), while the third (ABCA1) is extensively studied in relation to the reverse cholesterol pathway and cellular cholesterol homeostasis. We will attempt to derive a generalized model of lipid rafts to which they associate based on the use of various different lipid raft isolation procedures. In the context of lipid rafts, modulation of ABC transporter localization and function by two relevant lipid classes, i.e. sphingolipids and cholesterol, will be discussed.     

Real-time analysis of the effects of cholesterol on lipid raft behavior using atomic force microscopy

Cholesterol plays a crucial role in cell membranes, and has been implicated in the assembly and maintenance of sphingolipid-rich rafts. We have examined the cholesterol-dependence of model rafts (sphingomyelin-rich domains) in supported lipid monolayers and bilayers using atomic force microscopy. Sphingomyelin-rich domains were observed in lipid monolayers in the absence and presence of cholesterol, except at high cholesterol concentrations, when separate domains were suppressed. The effect of manipulating cholesterol levels on the behavior of these sphingomyelin-rich domains in bilayers was observed in real time. Depletion of cholesterol resulted in dissolution of the model lipid rafts, whereas cholesterol addition resulted in an increased size of the sphingomyelin-rich domains and eventually the formation of a single raftlike lipid phase. Cholesterol colocalization with sphingomyelin-rich domains was confirmed using the sterol binding agent filipin.     

Imaging lipid rafts

Lipid rafts are plasma membrane microdomains enriched in sphingolipids and cholesterol. These domains have been suggested to serve as platforms for various cellular events, such as signaling and membrane trafficking. However, little is known about the distribution and dynamics of lipids in these microdomains. Here we report investigations carried out using recently developed probes for the lipid components of lipid rafts: lysenin, a sphingomyelin-binding protein obtained from the coelomic fluid of the earthworm Eisenia foetida; and the fluorescein ester of poly(ethyleneglycol) cholesteryl ether (fPEG-Chol), which partitions into cholesterol-rich membranes. Lysenin reveals that the organization of sphingomyelin differs between different cell types and even between different membrane domains within the same cell. When added to live cells, fPEG-Chol is distributed exclusively on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane and is clustered dynamically upon activation of receptor signaling. The surface-bound fPEG-Chol is slowly internalized via a clathrin-independent pathway into endosomes with lipid raft markers.     

Lipid rafts as platforms for sphingosine 1-phosphate metabolism and signalling

Spontaneous segregation of cholesterol and sphingolipids as a liquid-ordered phase leads to their clustering in selected membrane areas, the lipid rafts. These specialized membrane domains enriched in gangliosides, sphingomyelin, cholesterol and selected proteins involved in signal transduction, organize and determine the function of multiprotein complexes involved in several aspects of signal transduction, thus regulating cell homeostasis. Sphingosine 1-phosphate, an important biologically active mediator, is involved in several signal transduction processes regulating a plethora of cell functions and, not only several of its downstream effectors tend to localize in lipid rafts, some of the enzymes involved in its pathway, of receptors involved in its signalling and its transporters have been often found in these membrane microdomains. Considering this, in this review we address what is currently known regarding the relationship between sphingosine 1-phosphate metabolism and signalling and plasma membrane lipid rafts.     

Sterol carrier protein-2 selectively alters lipid composition and cholesterol dynamics of caveolae/lipid raft vs nonraft domains in L-cell fibroblast plasma membranes

Although the functional significance of caveolae/lipid rafts in cellular signaling and cholesterol transfer is increasingly recognized, almost nothing is known regarding the lipids, cholesterol dynamics, and factors regulating these properties in caveolae/lipid rafts as opposed to nonlipid raft domains of the plasma membrane. The present findings demonstrate the utility of con-A affinity chromatography for simultaneous isolation of caveolae/lipid raft and nonlipid raft domains from plasma membranes of L-cell fibroblasts. These domains differed markedly in both protein and lipid constituents. Although caveolae/lipid rafts were enriched in total lipid, cholesterol, and phospholipid as well as other markers for these domains, the cholesterol/phospholipid ratio of caveolae/lipid rafts did not differ from that of nonlipid rafts. Nevertheless, spontaneous sterol transfer was 7-12-fold faster from caveolae/lipid raft than nonlipid raft domains of the plasma membrane. This was largely due to the near absence of exchangeable sterol in the nonlipid rafts. SCP-2 dramatically and selectively enhanced sterol transfer from caveolae/lipid rafts, but not from nonlipid rafts. Finally, overexpression of SCP-2 significantly altered the sterol dynamics of caveolae/lipid rafts to facilitate retention of cholesterol within the cell. These results established for the first time that (i) caveolae/lipid rafts, rather than the nonlipid raft domains, contain significant levels of rapidly transferable sterol, consistent with their role in spontaneous sterol transfer from and through the plasma membrane, and (ii) SCP-2 selectively regulates how caveolae/lipid rafts, but not nonlipid raft domains, mediate cholesterol trafficking through the plasma membrane.     

Lipid rafts are enriched in arachidonic acid and plasmenylethanolamine and their composition is independent of caveolin-1 expression: a quantitative electrospray ionization/mass spectrometric analysis

Lipid rafts are specialized cholesterol-enriched membrane domains that participate in cellular signaling processes. Caveolae are related domains that become invaginated due to the presence of the structural protein, caveolin-1. In this paper, we use electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI/MS) to quantitatively compare the phospholipids present in plasma membranes and nondetergent lipid rafts from caveolin-1-expressing and nonexpressing cells. Lipid rafts are enriched in cholesterol and sphingomyelin as compared to the plasma membrane fraction. Expression of caveolin-1 increases the amount of cholesterol recovered in the lipid raft fraction but does not affect the relative proportions of the various phospholipid classes. Surprisingly, ESI/MS demonstrated that lipid rafts are enriched in plasmenylethanolamines, particularly those containing arachidonic acid. While the total content of anionic phospholipids was similar in plasma membranes and nondetergent lipid rafts, the latter were highly enriched in phosphatidylserine but relatively depleted in phosphatidylinositol. Detergent-resistant membranes made from the same cells showed a higher cholesterol content than nondetergent lipid rafts but were depleted in anionic phospholipids. In addition, these detergent-resistant membranes were not enriched in arachidonic acid-containing ethanolamine plasmalogens. These data provide insight into the structure of lipid rafts and identify potential new roles for these domains in signal transduction.     

Perfringolysin O, a cholesterol-binding cytolysin, as a probe for lipid rafts

Gaining an understanding of the structural and functional roles of cholesterol in membrane lipid rafts is a critical issue in studies on cellular signaling and because of the possible involvement of lipid rafts in various diseases. We have focused on the potential of perfringolysin O (theta-toxin), a cholesterol-binding cytolysin produced by Clostridium perfringens, as a probe for studies on membrane cholesterol. We prepared a protease-nicked and biotinylated derivative of perfringolysin O (BCtheta) that binds selectively to cholesterol in cholesterol-rich microdomains of cell membranes without causing membrane lesions. Since the domains fulfill the criteria of lipid rafts, BCtheta can be used to detect cholesterol-rich lipid rafts. This is in marked contrast to filipin, another cholesterol-binding reagent, which binds indiscriminately to cell cholesterol. Using BCtheta, we are now searching for molecules that localize specifically in cholesterol-rich lipid rafts. Recently, we demonstrated that the C-terminal domain of perfringolysin O, domain 4 (D4), possesses the same binding characteristics as BCtheta. BIAcore analysis showed that D4 binds specifically to cholesterol with the same binding affinity as the full-size toxin. Cell-bound D4 is recovered predominantly from detergent-insoluble, low-density membrane fractions where raft markers, such as cholesterol, flotillin and Src family kinases, are enriched, indicating that D4 also binds selectively to lipid rafts. Furthermore, a green fluorescent protein-D4 fusion protein (GFP-D4) was revealed to be useful for real-time monitoring of cholesterol in lipid rafts in the plasma membrane. In addition, the expression of GFP-D4 in the cytoplasm might allow the investigations of intracellular trafficking of lipid rafts. The simultaneous visualization of lipid rafts in plasma membranes and inside cells might help in gaining a total understanding of the dynamic behavior of lipid rafts.     

Inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis disrupts lipid raft/caveolae and affects insulin receptor activation in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes

Lipid rafts are plasma membrane microdomains that are highly enriched with cholesterol and sphingolipids and in which various receptors and other proteins involved in signal transduction reside. In the present work, we analyzed the effect of cholesterol biosynthesis inhibition on lipid raft/caveolae composition and functionality and assessed whether sterol precursors of cholesterol could substitute for cholesterol in lipid rafts/caveolae. 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were treated with distal inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis or vehicle (control) and then membrane rafts were isolated by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis with either SKF 104976, AY 9944, 5,22-cholestadien-3β-ol or triparanol, which inhibit different enzymes on the pathway, led to a marked reduction in cholesterol content and accumulation of different sterol intermediates in both lipid rafts and non-raft domains. These changes in sterol composition were accompanied by disruption of lipid rafts, with redistribution of caveolin-1 and Fyn, impairment of insulin-Akt signaling and the inhibition of insulin-stimulated glucose transport. Cholesterol repletion abrogated the effects of cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors, reflecting they were specific. Our results show that cholesterol is required for functional raft-dependent insulin signaling.     

Cholesterol and prostate cancer

Cholesterol is a neutral lipid that accumulates in liquid-ordered, detergent-resistant membrane domains called lipid rafts. Lipid rafts serve as membrane platforms for signal transduction mechanisms that mediate cell growth, survival, and a variety of other processes relevant to cancer. A number of studies, going back many years, demonstrate that cholesterol accumulates in solid tumors and that cholesterol homeostasis breaks down in the prostate with aging and with the transition to the malignant state. This review summarizes the established links between cholesterol and prostate cancer (PCa), with a focus on how accumulation of cholesterol within the lipid raft component of the plasma membrane may stimulate signaling pathways that promote progression to hormone refractory disease. We propose that increases in cholesterol in prostate tumor cell membranes, resulting from increases in circulating levels or from dysregulation of endogenous synthesis, results in the coalescence of raft domains. This would have the effect of sequestering positive regulators of oncogenic signaling within rafts, while maintaining negative regulators in the liquid-disordered membrane fraction. This approach toward examining the function of lipid rafts in prostate cancer cells may provide insight into the role of circulating cholesterol in malignant growth and on the potential relationship between diet and aggressive disease. Large-scale characterization of proteins that localize to cholesterol-rich domains may help unveil signaling networks and pathways that will lead to identification of new biomarkers for disease progression and potentially to novel targets for therapeutic intervention.