Diet of wild boar Sus scrofa in Western Europe, with particular reference to consumption of agricultural crops

1. The diet of wild boar Sus scrofa in Western Europe is reviewed, paying particular attention to the consumption of agricultural crops and the implications of this from the point of view of crop damage. Data were taken mainly from 11 studies that provide quantitative information about the consumption of different food types, but we also list all the foods reported as being eaten by wild boar in a total of 21 studies. 2. Vegetable foods occurred more frequently in the diet than animal foods, and also constituted the bulk of the food ingested. Overall, there were four major vegetable food categories: mast, roots, green plant matter and agricultural crops. Depending on the study area, wild boar always consumed at least one energy‐rich plant food such as acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, pine seeds, olives, cereal grains or other crops. The number and types of agricultural crops consumed varied between study areas but crops represent an important component of wild boar diet throughout its Western European range. Among animal foods, insects, earthworms, birds and mammals were eaten most consistently but the diet also included amphibians, reptiles, gastropods and myriapods. 3. Seasonal, interannual and regional differences in the diet, together with its striking overall breadth, indicate that wild boar are opportunistic omnivores whose diet, in any particular instance, is largely determined by the relative availability of different food types. Dependence on energy‐rich plant material as a major component of the diet, coupled with large body size and a propensity to trample crops as well as consume them, means that wild boar cause significant agricultural damage.     

Factors influencing wild boar damage in Taohongling National Nature Reserve in China: a model approach

Conflicts between humans and wildlife, especially wild boar (Sus scrofa), have caused serious problems across the world in recent years. It is necessary to effectively control wild boar agricultural damage that may be influenced by many factors. In this study, we collected data on agricultural damage caused by wild boars from November 2009 to October 2010 using field surveys and social interviews in Taohongling National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi Province, China. We constructed models using binary logistic regression analysis to predict damage risks and to identify the factors influencing damage risks. About 8.1 % of croplands were damaged by wild boars, and the damage to rice, cotton, and other crops were not distributed based on their respective availability as shown by the result of a chi-square goodness-of-fit test. Five factors (Japanese silvergrass, soil conditions, terrain, distances to settlements, and water sources) were explained in a model based on damage area (area-based model) with the prediction accuracy being 72.1 %. In addition to these five factors, one additional factor (i.e. distance to forest edge) was retained in a model based on damage frequency (frequency-based model) with the prediction accuracy being 83.1 %. Caution is needed when we apply these two models to predict boar damage to crops, and it is recommended that both models be used in combination to predict the damage probabilities more accurately.     

Diet of wild boar Sus scrofa L. and crop damage in an intensive agroecosystem

The Middle Ebro Valley (MEV) is a semiarid area in northeast Iberia where the original riparian ecosystems are almost extinct and were replaced by intensive irrigated agricultural lands. To minimize crop damages and to understand the impact of wild boar on relict riparian ecosystems, a culling program was undertaken from 1994 until 2004. To assess the impact of wild boars, we analyzed stomach contents and surveyed crop damage. In the MEV, wild boars feed mainly on crops, particularly, maize. Other elements of the diet that are of agricultural origin include wheat, barley, and alfalfa, which are the alternatives to maize in the period between harvest and seeding, which is the basis of seasonal changes in diet. Results indicate that wild boar actively selected maize crops and consumed wheat in proportion to its abundance; barley and alfalfa fields were damaged less than expected based on their abundance. In the MEV, the wild boar population is limited by the availability of shelter areas found in the scarce riparian ecosystems, which do not provide important food items for this population. We conclude that in the region of this study, wild boars are not a significant threat to the flora and fauna of riparian ecosystems, although as these habitats are restored and areas are protected, the carrying capacity for wild boars might increase.     

贵州赤水桫椤国家级自然保护区野猪危害特征与居民态度分析

野猪对农作物的危害是当前人与野生动物冲突的典型案例,分析其危害特征,掌握当地居民对野猪危害与保护管理的态度,对于自然保护区社区共管与野生动物保护管理决策尤为重要。对贵州赤水桫椤国家级自然保护区的调查研究发现,野猪一年四季均危害农作物,危害高峰期在 2-4 月与10-12 月,主要受作物收获期影响;农耕地在保护区的位置、距道路距离及距水源距离显著影响野猪对农耕地的危害,农耕地距道路(< 55 m)和水源越近(< 270 m),遭受危害程度越高。保护区的实验区和周边区域人居活动强烈,但野猪危害较其他区域严重,野猪危害农地时对水源因素较距居民点距离、距林缘距离、隐蔽因素更为敏感。70% 的当地居民认为野猪危害是由于种群数量过多引起。55% 的当地居民不赞同国家保护野猪的政策,62% 的赞同猎杀野猪控制其种群数量增长。受访者年龄与野猪危害程度两因素显著影响居民对野猪的容忍度,50 - 70 岁是当地社区居民的主要人群,也是态度中立及容忍度较高的人群。为有效减少野猪危害损失,调和人与野生动物冲突矛盾,建议保护区管理者根据野猪危害特征,帮助当地居民建立有效防控措施和有效快速的危害评估与损失补偿机制,同时根据当地居民的态度特征,做好保护政策的宣教工作。     

Habitat suitability and crop damage risk caused by wild boar in Guizhou Plateau,China

Crop damage caused by wild boar (Sus scrofa) in many agroforestry regions of the world has affected agricultural development and farmers' livelihoods. Understanding the patterns of wild boar crop damage is important for properly managing these conflicts, and can improve the effectiveness of existing prevention strategies. We collected a comprehensive dataset from Guizhou Province, China, from 2017 to 2020, obtained from motion-sensitive camera monitoring, transect surveys, interview surveys, and wildlife management administrations. These data include 3,156 records of wild boar activity in natural areas and 576 records of crop damage. We applied a multi-scale MaxEnt model to map the regional distribution of wild boar habitat suitability and crop damage risk in Guizhou Province and focused on the role of habitat suitability in wild boar crop damage from a regional perspective. Wild boar habitat suitability exhibits a divergent pattern, expanding from the central area of Guizhou Province to the eastern, northern, southern, and northwestern regions, with a gradually increasing trend. Suitability of habitat for wild boar was associated with composite topographic index, mean coldest season temperature, isothermality, Shannon diversity index, edge density, and distance to village roads. Similarly, crop damage caused by wild boars in agroforestry areas is mainly concentrated in the northeast, with the risk increasing from west to east. The risk of damage was associated with temperature seasonality, roughness, distance to village roads, precipitation in the warmest quarter, edge density, and contagion index. Furthermore, in agroforestry areas, there is a positive correlation between wild boar habitat suitability and crop damage risk, with Spearman rank correlation coefficients ranging from 0.5759 to 0.5932. This correlation is not perfectly synchronized on a regional scale. This study indicates that the relationship between habitat suitability and crop damage caused by wild boar in Guizhou Province is primarily influenced by changes in population size rather than the habitat. Consequently, we emphasize the importance of controlling wild boar populations through hunting as a way to effectively reduce the risk of crop damage in agroforestry areas, without neglecting the need for proper habitat management.     

Factors affecting crop damage by wild boar and methods of mitigation in a giant panda reserve

In China, following the introduction of protection measures, wild boar (Sus scrofa) are returning to forested mountains they previously inhabited and conflict in villages near or within areas under protection has intensified. We studied this phenomenon around a giant panda nature reserve in the Qinling Mountains, China to determine the incidence and frequency of wild boar damage and methods of mitigation. Over a 3-year period, we found that almost half of households in the local village sustained crop damage, that wild boar frequently raided maize (Zea mays), potato (Ipomoea batatas), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) adjoining the reserve, and that boar usually raided croplands at night and preferred the actual crops. The distance between maize fields and mountains or a stream predicted the probability of a field being raided and also the severity of the damage. Local farmers used many methods to protect their crops; however, all were ineffective except increasing the presence of humans in fields.     

Habitat use and spatial patterns of wild boar <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sus scrofa</Emphasis> (L.): agricultural fields and edges

Rapidly increasing populations of wild boar in Sweden and Europe cause much damage to crops, and there is a critical need for more knowledge about their habitat utilization, especially of agricultural fields. In our study, we first assess the spatial pattern of damage in relation to the edges of agricultural fields. Next, with the aid of global positioning system collars, we studied the pattern of movement of wild boar on agricultural fields. Finally, in order to understand the role of agricultural fields, we studied how habitat selection may vary throughout the year. We found edge effects on damage patterns in agricultural fields. During winter and spring, we found wild boar not only to follow edges, but also to move along narrow landscape elements within agricultural fields. In our habitat analysis, we found strong avoidance of exposed agricultural fields throughout the year, but significantly less when crops are ripe.     

Ecological engineering strategies to reduce flooding damage to wetland crops in central China

Ecological engineering techniques are widely used in Chinese agriculture to reduce wastes and improve efficiency, but rarely to address crop loss associated with flooding. In the middle Yangtze River basin in central China, dish-shaped areas that formerly contained shallow lakes and marshes are now empoldered for the cultivation of rice, fish and other crops. These areas are economically productive but regularly experience crop damage due to rainfall amounts exceeding the removal capacity of pumps and drainage canals. A field investigation gathered existing data on landforms, hydrology, agricultural and aquacultural practices, and recent flooding events at two scales: Xiaogang Farm, 24 km², and Honghu Flood Diversion Area, 2800 km². Computer simulations suggested that local-scale increases in pumping capacity would effectively reduce local flooding damage, but this approach would be less effective if implemented over a wide area. Proposed ecological engineering strategies for flood resistance, including converting some low-position area from rice to flood-tolerant crops such as lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) or wild rice stem (Zizania latifolia), and raising dikes around the converted fields to allow passive storage of excess water during heavy rains, may reduce damage at both local and wide scales.     

A review of wild boar Sus scrofa diet and factors affecting food selection in native and introduced ranges

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Crop damage by African elephants assessment in kaftasheraro national park,Ethiopia

This study was conducted in Kafta‐Sheraro wereda in Northwest Tigray region of Ethiopia to assess community take on crop damage by the African Elephant, to identify visiting time of Elephants to agricultural plots and identify any other animals causing crop damage. A total of 240 households were selected from twelve villages using a stratified random sampling procedure. Half of the villages represented samples closer to the park and the other half, represented samples farther away. Whether the farmer owned or rented plots on which crops were grown as well as the distance to the park from the plots were the primary factors significantly (P < 0.05) influencing crop damage by elephants in the area. Time of the elephants visiting the agricultural plots was significantly (P < 0.05) higher at night. In a ranking exercise, among seven species considered, Elephants were ranked second in importance after Warthogs for crop destruction in villages close to the park but last in villages farther away. In the latter area, the most problematic animal was the Warthog followed by the Crested Porcupine. In the former areas where elephants' damage to crops was more frequent, farmers ranked fire as the most effective way of controlling the invasion. The study concludes that bringing the community to the discussion on elephant crop damage, increasing the time of keeping vigil during the night; improving the extension services and training in awareness creation and additional research's should be undertaken to evaluate in monetary terms the value of crop damage.     

Relationships between wild ungulates density and crop damage in Hungary

Game damage to agriculture represents one of the most important and most frequent human?Cwildlife conflicts worldwide. In Hungary and in the other European countries, damage caused by wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) is the most significant. The volume of damage is correlated with the population density of the game species, however, not exclusively. Since the growing expansion of wild ungulates is a general tendency in Europe, increasing conflicts can be envisaged. The objective of our study was to assess the possible relationships between the amount of agricultural game damage and big game population density considering some other factors (e.g. habitat structure, sown area of cultivated plants) by analysing wildlife management and land-use statistics for the 19 counties of Hungary from 1997 to 2008. According to the results, crop damage positively correlated with the population density of red deer and wild boar, with the length of forest edge, and the proportion of the sown area of maize. According to the regression model, these factors could be accountable for 74.2?% of the total agricultural game damage.     

卧龙自然保护区野生动物肇事农地特征及影响机制

野生动物肇事是保护区内部和周边地区的普遍现象,严重影响了保护区生物多样性保护的有效性,是当前保护区管理面临的新问题。以四川卧龙国家级自然保护区为例,于2014年7—8月以问卷调查方式获取了170个农地的野生动物肇事信息,建立了野生动物肇事与不同农地特征之间的二元logistic回归模型,并通过赤池信息量准则筛选出3个拟合优良的回归模型。研究结果表明,野生动物肇事与农地特征之间存在密切关系,其中农地种植作物类型、农地与森林、公路的距离、围栏的使用等农地特征意义显著(P值均小于0.01)。进而探讨了上述农地特征对野生动物肇事的影响机制及原因,并据此结果提出了野生动物肇事地的评价和管理、调整作物种植结构、统一规划和管理防护措施、减轻当地居民对农业的依赖等缓解人与野生动物冲突的对策。     

Modern Hunting Practices and Wild Meat Trade in the Oil Palm Plantation-Dominated Landscapes of Sumatra,Indonesia

The ongoing expansion of plantation agriculture has changed the ecological, demographic, and social conditions of Southeast Asia’s forested areas, yet little is known about hunting practices in these novel landscapes. Using information from 73 in-depth interviews with hunters, agricultural workers and wild meat dealers in the Jambi province of Sumatra, Indonesia, we describe contemporary hunting practices, including how hunting methods, wildlife harvest and consumption rates vary between different indigenous and immigrant ethnic groups. Hunting is now primarily a commercial endeavor for harvesting wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat; over 7500 wild boars were sold in Jambi City alone in 2011. The Muslim majority avoids wild boar for religious reasons, but there is substantial local and export demand driven by Chinese and Christian Batak. We conclude that hunting within oil palm plantations may reduce crop damage from wild boar and also yield large amounts of wild meat with relatively little by-catch of threatened animals.     

Landscape effects on wild boar home range size under contrasting harvest regimes in a human-dominated agro-ecosystem

Agro-ecosystems can experience elevated human-wildlife conflicts, especially crop damage. While game management often aims at reducing number to mitigate conflicts, there is on-going debate about the role of hunting disturbance in promoting game to range over wider areas, thereby potentially exacerbating conflicts. Herein, we hypothesised that landscape configuration and non-lethal disturbance modulate the response to harvest disturbance. We used an information theoretic approach to test the effects of landscape and anthropogenic variables on wild boar ranging patterns across contrasting harvest regimes. We used 164 seasonal home ranges from 95 wild boar (Sus scrofa) radio-tracked over 6 years in the Geneva Basin where two main harvest regimes coexist (day hunt and night cull). Mean seasonal 95% kernel home range size was 4.01 ± 0.20 km² (SE) and 50% core range size 0.79 ± 0.04 km², among the smallest recorded in Europe. Range sizes were larger in the day hunt area than in the night cull area, with no seasonal effect. However, when accounting for landscape variables, we demonstrate that these patterns were likely confounded by the underlying landscape configuration, and that landscape variables remain the primary drivers of wild boar ranging patterns in this human-dominated agro-ecosystem with range size best explained by a model including landscape variables only. Therefore, we recommend accounting for landscape configuration and sources of non-lethal disturbance in the design of harvest strategies when the aim is to limit wide-ranging behaviour of wild boar in order to mitigate conflicts.     

Rooting damage to farmland in Dorset, southern England, caused by feral wild boar Sus scrofa

1. Characteristics of damage to agricultural land caused by a small feral population of wild boar Sus scrofa in southern England were studied. Fifty‐eight reports of rooting damage to grassland and one of rooting in a cereal crop were recorded between December 1997 and November 2002. Most reports (74%) concerned damage in January, February or March. 2. Damage mainly occurred in fields adjacent to woodland, but there was no evidence of selection between different grassland types. The severity of damage was assessed and potential options for reducing damage in the future are suggested.     

保护区及周边居民对野猪容忍性的影响因素——以黑龙江凤凰山国家级自然保护区为例

以黑龙江凤凰山国家级自然保护区为例,于2010年9、10月份,采用问卷调查法和实地考察法相结合的形式,调查该保护区及周边地区野猪危害农田的情况,以及居民对野猪的容忍性和认知度。结合Mann-Whitey U检验和Kruskal-Wallis H检验方法比较各个因素对保护区及周边居民野猪容忍性的影响差异,用主成分分析法对主要影响因素进行辨析。结果表明:农田收入比例、文化程度、人均农田面积以及野猪毁田面积是影响居民对野猪容忍性的主要因素。被访问的居民中,66.19%的居民希望野猪种群减少或消失;63.38%的居民赞同或者完全赞同保护措施;毁田事件发生后,46.48%的居民赞同或完全赞同捕杀野猪;在村外遇见野猪时,66.20%的居民不赞同或者完全不赞同捕杀野猪;在山野遇见野猪时,65.59%的居民不赞同或者完全不赞同捕杀野猪,说明遇到野猪的地点对居民所持捕杀态度基本没有影响。     

The barbados vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaens): Changes in population size and crop damage, 1980–1994

We investigated changes in population size and crop damage for the vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) in Barbados over the period 1980–1994. In both 1980 and 1994, we obtained data primarily via a survey of farmers islandwide to obtain estimates of group size and number of groups on agricultural land. We assessed the farmers’ estimates independently for reliability by counting number of groups and group size on a subsample of farms. We surveyed approximately 20% of the total land area in Barbados and extrapolated the results to the whole island. The estimate of population size of monkeys in 1994 is 4% greater than for 1980, but the difference is not statistically significant. This suggests that, despite the removal of over 10,000 vervets via humane trapping and through hunting over the 14-year period, population size has remained the same. Over the same time period, the percentage of crops damaged by vervets was reported by farmers to have increased almost 30%. The increase in crop damage relative to the increase in vervet abundance may best be explained by a decrease in the availability of crops to vervets, since substantial amounts of agricultural land were taken out of crop production between 1980 and 1994.     

The effect of landscape structure on the distribution of brown hare Lepus europaeus in farmlands of Germany and Poland

Habitat management should be an important part of the brown hare (Lepus europaeus) conservation, but the habitat requirements of this species are not fully recognised. The aim of our research was to estimate these requirements by analysing the effect of various agricultural landscape structure features on the distribution of hares in five agricultural areas in Germany and Poland. The local density of hares was assessed in the spring and autumn of 2006 by using the method of spotlight–strip counts on 9–15 subareas in each research region. The structure of agricultural landscape has been described for each subarea: the share of grain, other crops and grasses as well as the density of crop edges and uncultivated places with wild vegetation. The density of hares was considerably higher in Germany than in Poland (18.8–48.4 vs. 4.1–9.5 indiv./km²). The hare density was positively correlated with non-grain crops in an area, with crop edges in two areas and with wild vegetation without trees in two areas, and negatively correlated with grassfields in two areas. The occurrence of wild vegetation without trees affected the hare density only in the study areas, where this habitat was relatively rare (<3 km/km²). It was suggested that proper projects aimed at habitat management for brown hares should be elastic, i.e. the projects should be modified depending on the structure of local landscapes. Moreover, the protection and creation of structures with wild vegetation among cropland seem to be considerable methods of brown hare or generally wildlife conservation; therefore, such measures should be an important part of agro-environmental packages.     

Patterns and perceptions of wildlife crop raiding in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra

Crop raiding can reduce farmers' tolerance towards wildlife. Despite higher human population densities in rural areas, and more rapid conversion of forest to farmland, much less is known about crop raiding in Asia than in Africa. Over 14 months, we identified perceived and actual crop pests, and their patterns of crop raiding from farmland in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra. Farmers named either the wild boar Sus scrofa (80%) or the pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina (20%) as the two most destructive crop pests. From 5125 crop raids by 11 species of mammal, most raids were indeed made by the wild boar (56%) and the pig-tailed macaque (19%). For all species combined, temporal crop raiding peaks were positively correlated with periods of high rainfall. Spatially, most crop raids occurred nearest to the forest edge and the local guarding strategies used were ineffective. However, raids by wild boars were more extensive than raids by pig-tailed macaques, which caused much greater crop damage (73%) than wild boars (26%), contrary to farmers' perceptions. Our research suggests that alternative mitigation strategies need to be trialed over dry and rainy seasons to identify the most effective strategies and that guarding effort should be increased during the rainy seasons and tailored towards specific crop raiding species based on their unique spatial patterns.     

吉林珲春地区野猪危害防控研究

近年来人与野生动物冲突日趋严重。2012年7月到2014年10月,利用东北虎(Panthera tigris altaica)粪便、声音在吉林珲春地区开展了野猪(Sus scrofa)危害防控研究。以采取防控措施起始时间到野猪进入实验样地或对照样地的时间间隔作为防控有效期;以实验结束时实验样地内放置东北虎粪便、东北虎声音播放器位置或对照样地中心点与样地内野猪危害发生处的最短距离作为防控范围。将防控有效期和防控范围分别转化为有效期指数和范围指数。结果表明:(1)东北虎粪便对野猪危害防控效果显著,与对照组相比,有效期指数和范围指数均存在显著差异(P0.05);(2)东北虎声音对野猪危害防控效果显著,与对照组相比,有效期指数和范围指数均差异显著(P0.05);(3)同时应用东北虎粪便和声音防控野猪危害效果显著,与对照组相比,有效期指数和范围指数均差异显著(P0.05);(4)单独应用东北虎粪便、单独应用东北虎声音与同时应用东北虎粪便和声音的各种防控方法之间,有效期指数和范围指数无显著差异(P0.05)。本研究认为,东北虎粪便、声音对野猪危害防控效果显著与东北虎是野猪天敌,且珲春地区存在东北虎有关。