Life cycle emissions and energy study of biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil and diesel in Singapore

Background, aim and scope  

Biodiesel derived from Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) is considered highly environmentally sustainable since WCO is a waste product from domestic and commercial cooking processes and then recycled to a transportation fuel in Singapore. In addition, it avoids the conversion of land use for crop production. This is a strong advantage for Singapore which has relatively smaller land space than other countries. The import of virgin oil as feedstock into Singapore is also avoided. Therefore, the more appropriate feedstock to produce biodiesel in Singapore context is WCO. According to the National Environment Agency, diesel vehicles in Singapore contribute 50% of the total particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm (PM_0.25) emissions to air ambient. Hence, the aim of this life cycle assessment study was to compare the environmental performances of biodiesel derived from WCO and low sulphur diesel in terms of global warming potential, life cycle energy efficiency (LCEE) and fossil energy ratio (FER) using the life cycle inventory. The results of this study would serve as a reference for energy policy makers and environmental agencies.     

Deep desulfurization of diesel oil and crude oils by a newly isolated Rhodococcus erythropolis strain

The soil-isolated strain XP was identified as Rhodococcus erythropolis. R. erythropolis XP could efficiently desulfurize benzonaphthothiophene, a complicated model sulfur compound that exists in crude oil. The desulfurization product of benzonaphthothiophene was identified as alpha-hydroxy-beta-phenyl-naphthalene. Resting cells could desulfurize diesel oil (total organic sulfur, 259 ppm) after hydrodesulfurization. The sulfur content of diesel oil was reduced by 94.5% by using the resting cell biocatalyst for 24 h at 30 degrees C. Biodesulfurization of crude oils was also investigated. After 72 h of treatment at 30 degrees C, 62.3% of the total sulfur content in Fushun crude oil (initial total sulfur content, 3,210 ppm) and 47.2% of that in Sudanese crude oil (initial total sulfur, 1,237 ppm) were removed. Gas chromatography with pulsed-flame photometric detector analysis was used to evaluate the effect of R. erythropolis XP treatment on the sulfur content in Fushun crude oil, and it was shown that most organic sulfur compounds were eliminated after biodesulfurization.     

Nitrous oxide emissions from a gully mire in mid-Wales, UK, under simulated summer drought

Certain general circulation models predict that a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations will increase the frequency of summer drought in northern wetlands due to hotter, drier summers. There is currently much uncertainty as to how drought will affect emissions of the greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide, from wetlands. We have demonstrated that an eight centimetre drawdown of the water table in a gully mire does not significantly affect nitrous oxide emissions from this site. However, under a more extreme drought scenario carried out on peat monoliths, nitrous oxide emissions increased exponentially with a linear decrease in water table height. Drought caused a significant increase in nitrous oxide productionbelow the water table but most of the total increase could be attributed to increased emissionsabove the water table. Results from an acetylene block experiment suggested that increased emissions were caused by increased nitrous oxide production from denitrification, rather than by increased production from nitrification. In the laboratory study, drought severity had no effect on peatwater nitrate concentrations below the water table, however, increasing drought severity decreased ammonium concentrations.     

Annual changes of microalgae biomass in Antarctic sea ice contaminated by crude oil and diesel fuel

The influence of diesel fuel and “Arabian light” crude oil contamination were investigated on the land fast ice located in the continental shelf of Terre Adélie, Antarctica, during the austral winter 1993. Autotrophic biomass exhibited a clear seasonal pattern. In uncontaminated sea ice, chlorophyll a concentration showed two maxima, one in April (50 mg m⁻³) during sea-ice formation, and the second one in spring just before the ice thaw (20 mg m⁻³). The crude oil and diesel fuel contamination induced a negative effect on ice-microalgae biomass, which remained at a weak level throughout the ice-covered period. However, the inhibitory effect of diesel contamination was immediate while the crude oil effect occurred after the autumn phytoplankton bloom. Addition of fertilizer (Inipol EAP-22) to diesel and crude oil had a clear favourable effect on ice-microalgae. Chlorophyll a biomass exhibited the same seasonal pattern in fertilized and uncontaminated areas. Accepted: 10 November 1998     

Dynamic changes in the structure of microbial communities in Baltic Sea coastal seawater microcosms modified by crude oil,shale oil or diesel fuel

The coastal waters of the Baltic Sea are constantly threatened by oil spills, due to the extensive transportation of oil products across the sea. To characterise the hydrocarbon-degrading bacterial community of this marine area, microcosm experiments on diesel fuel, crude oil and shale oil were performed. Analysis of these microcosms, using alkane monooxygenase (alkB) and 16S rRNA marker genes in PCR-DGGE experiments, demonstrated that substrate type and concentration strongly influence species composition and the occurrence of alkB genes in respective oil degrading bacterial communities. Gammaproteobacteria (particularly the genus Pseudomonas) and Alphaproteobacteria were dominant in all microcosms treated with oils. All alkB genes carried by bacterial isolates (40 strains), and 8 of the 11 major DGGE bands from the microcosms, had more than 95% sequence identity with the alkB genes of Pseudomonas fluorescens. However, the closest relatives of the majority of sequences (54 sequences from 79) of the alkB gene library from initially collected seawater DNA were Actinobacteria. alkB gene expression, induced by hexadecane, was recorded in isolated bacterial strains. Thus, complementary culture dependent and independent methods provided a more accurate picture about the complex seawater microbial communities of the Baltic Sea.     

棉籽蛋白质和油分含量预测的生态模型

为研究棉籽蛋白质和油分含量与环境因子间的定量关系,选择不同熟性棉花品种在长江流域下游棉区和黄河流域黄淮棉区各2个地点进行分期播种和施氮量试验,分析了品种、主要气象条件和施氮量对棉籽蛋白质和油分含量的影响.结果表明:棉籽蛋白质和油分含量的主要影响因子除品种外依次为铃期平均温度、太阳辐射量和施氮量;棉籽蛋白质和油分形成的最适宜铃期日均温分别为26.1℃和25.7℃;充足的光照不利于棉籽蛋白质和油分含量的提高;增加施氮量提高了棉籽蛋白质含量,降低了油分含量.建立了棉籽蛋白质含量与油分含量的生态模型,模型以品种、铃期平均温度、铃期日均太阳辐射量和施氮量为模型输入,简便易行.模型对棉籽蛋白质含量和油分含量预测的根均方差(RMSE)分别为2.03％和2.54％,具有较好的预测性.     

Induction of sister-chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes by extracts of particulate emissions from a diesel engine

Particulate matter was collected from the emissions of a diesel-powered engine and the organic components were extracted. The extract induced a dose-related increase in sister-chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes with a potency of about one-fifth that of benzo[a]pyrene.     

Isolation, identification, and structure of a potent alkyl-peroxyl radical scavenger in crude canola oil, canolol

Alkylhydroperoxides in oxidized oil are undesirable components because they become alkylperoxyl radicals (ROO*) in the presence of heme, hemoglobin, or myoglobin in red meat. ROO* are biochemically reactive and damage nucleic acids and proteins, thereby harming living cells. We isolated a component, a highly potent ROO* scavenger, from crude canola oil (rapeseed), which we designated canolol, and identified its chemical structure, 4-vinyl-2,6-dimethoxyphenol. The canolol content of crude canola oil greatly increased after the seed was roasted as compared with that from unroasted seed, but it decreased in highly purified oil. This anti-ROO* activity was highest in crude oil, deceased after each refining step, and was lowest in highly purified refined oil. Canolol was thus generated during roasting. As shown previously, canolol is one of the most potent anti-ROO* components in crude canola oil and its potency is much greater than that of well-known antioxidants, including alpha-tocopherol, vitamin C, beta-carotene, rutin, and quercetin.     

Exploring a new,soluble lipase for FAMEs production in water-containing systems using crude soybean oil as a feedstock

Performance of a new lipase from Novozymes (Callera Trans L) was studied for fatty acid methylesters (FAMEs) production. In order to reduce the costs of the industrial enzymatic biodiesel production process, the enzyme was used in its soluble form instead of the common immobilized preparations. Cost reduction was also achieved by using crude (non-degummed) soybean oil as a cheaper raw material. The effect of water content during Callera Trans L-catalyzed FAMEs production was explored from evaluation of free fatty acids (FFAs), tri- di or monoacylglycerides (TAGs, DAGs, MAGs) variation during 24 h reaction. An excellent 96% FAMEs release was achieved when low (3–5%) water concentrations were used in the conversion of crude soybean oil. Time course HPLC analysis of the reaction products suggests that the soluble enzyme proceeds through a mechanism of methylester formation based on a first hydrolysis step that releases FFAs, DAGs or MAGs, followed by esterification of FFAs with methanol for FAMEs production.     

Integration of biosorption and biodegradation in a fed-batch mode for the enhanced crude oil remediation

Microbial bioremediation of oil-contaminated sites is still a challenge due to the slower rate and susceptibility of microbes to a higher concentration of oil. The poor bioavailability, hydrophobicity, and non-polar nature of oil slow down microbial biodegradation. In this study, biodegradation of crude oil is performed in fed-batch mode using an oil-degrader Pseudomonas aeruginosa to address the issue of substrate toxicity. The slower biodegradation was integrated with faster biosorption for effective oil remediation. Highly fibrous and porous sugarcane bagasse was surface modified with hydrophobic octyl groups to improve the surface-oil interactions. The microbe showed 2 folds enhanced oil degradation in the fed-batch study, which was further increased by 1·5 folds in the integrated biosorption coupled biodegradation approach. The biosorption-assisted biodegradation approach supported the microbial growth to 2 folds higher than the fed-batch study without biosorbent. The analysis of biosurfactant production indicated the 3 folds higher concentration in fed-batch modes as compared to batch study. In the integrated strategy, the concentration of contaminant (oil) reduces to quite a tolerable level to microbes, which improved effective metabolism and thus overall biodegradation. This study puts forward a promising strategy for improved degradation of hazardous hydrophobic contaminants in a sustainable, economic and eco-friendly manner.     

Mutagenic nitroarenes,diesel emissions,particulate-induced mutations and cancer: an essay on cancer-causation by a moving target

Initial analyses of the lung tumors seen in rats exposed for their lifetime to elevated levels of the emissions of diesel engines suggested that they were due to powerful mutagens and carcinogens (PAHs, nitro PAHS) adsorbed onto the diesel particles. However, further studies showed that carcinogenicity occurred only under conditions that resulted in impaired lung clearance (‘overloading’) leading to inflammatory reactions and other pathologic sequelae. These observations together with the findings that carbon black, a model for diesel particles devoid of organic mutagens and carcinogens, also induced lung cancers under conditions of overloading led to the suggestion that the cancers resulted from a non-genotoxic mechanism. However, the further finding that inert particulate carcinogens devoid of organics, induced mutations has led to a re-evaluation of the role of mutations in lung carcinogenesis caused by particles and the relevance of the rat model to humans. This is especially timely as epidemiological studies suggest that humans may develop lung cancers following occupational exposure to diesel emissions by a mechanism unlikely to involve lung overloading. Finally, the recent recognition that environmental PM-10 (respiratory size particles) may be responsible for a significant portion of human morbidity and mortality, ensures that the health effect of diesel emissions will continue to receive scrutiny as they contribute to the PM-10 load.     

Leptodactylone,a yellow coumarin from Leptodactylon and Linanthus species

A new phenol in Leptodactylon and Linanthus leaf has been identified by spectral procedures as 5,7-dimethoxy-8-hydroxycoumarin. This structure has been confirmed by synthesis. Leptodactylone is unique among simple hydroxycoumarins in its yellow colour.     

Microrefuges from drying for invertebrates in a seasonal wetland

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Effectiveness of a microbial formula,as a bioaugmentation agent,tailored for bioremediation of diesel oil and heavy metal co-contaminated soil

The activation of natural bioremediation potentials is the challenge that research is currently addressing for overcoming bottlenecks still affecting bioremediation applications. Bioaugmentation is one possible way to activate such natural potentials, provided that the biodiversity introduced to increase catabolically relevant capacity is identified also considering the ecological context. The present work deals with bioaugmentation aimed at the remediation of a soil co-contaminated (spiked) with both diesel oil (1%, v/w), and heavy metals (Pb and Zn), using intact soil core microcosms in different experimental conditions. We supposed that both heavy metal resistance and active metabolism towards organic pollutants are essential metabolic traits to trap the energetic flux, which drives the microbial community towards biodegradation under the given experimental conditions. Consequently, the bioaugmentation was performed by introducing a tailor made microbial formula composed of 12 allochthonous strains. They belong to a stable population previously isolated from a chronic polluted site and are both hydrocarbon degraders and heavy metal resistant and, also, compatible with the autochthonous microbial community. The active role of the microbial formula in pushing the entire community towards an effective bioremediation of diesel oil close to 75%, in the presence of bioavailable metals, has been proven through hydrocarbons analysis, metabolic and molecular profiling at community level (Biolog system, DGGE).     

Bacterial communities in a crude oil gathering and transferring system (China)

Bacterial communities in crude oil and oil field production water samples from an oil gathering and transferring system in Changqing Oil field in China were investigated by 16S rRNA denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis followed by gene cloning and sequencing. DGGE profiles showed that bacterial communities are far more rich in the water samples than that in the crude oil samples, and that bacteria related to Ochrobactrum sp. and Stenotrophomonas sp. were detected in all crude oil and oil field water samples. Bacteria related to Burkholderia sp., Brevundimonas sp., and Propionibacterium sp. were detected in the crude oil samples but not in water samples. Bacteria related to Hippea sp., Acidovorax sp., Arcobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Thiomicrospira sp., Brevibacterium sp., Tissierella sp. and Peptostreptococcus sp. were detected in the water samples but not in crude oil samples. Using an archaea-specific primer set, methanogens related to Methanomicrobials and Methanosarcinales were found in water samples but not in crude oil samples. The comparability of the microbial communities in the water and crude oil phase during the period of oil gathering and transferring process was 83.3% and 88.2%, respectively, indicating a stable structure of the microbial communities.     

Effects of crude oil on survival,morphology, and anatomy of two aquatic macrophytes from the Amazon floodplains

Aquatic herbaceous macrophytes grow in profusion in the Amazon fertile varzea floodplains. A large number of species occur but only a few are particularly abundant, supporting food chains, contributing substantially to carbon and nutrient cycles. Their growth and role in the ecosystem depend, among other, on its life cycles and habits, floating or semi-aquatic. Although in the last decades, petroliferous activity intensified in the Central Amazon region and so did oil spills, the effect of petroleum on the native aquatic plants is unknown. The present study was designed to test experimentally the survival and morpho-anatomical modifications of the free floating water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes and the semi-aquatic grass Echinochloa polystachya to 10 different concentrations of crude oil. Higher concentrations of crude oil caused the mortality in both species; however, lethal dose (LD₅₀) values showed that E. polystachya was more sensitive than E. crassipes. Despite the higher tolerance of E. crassipes, the inhibition of root and leaf growth as well as anatomical modifications in leaves were registered in higher concentrations. Additionally, the oil caused a reduction in leaf numbers in both species. Although mortality of the floating species was lower, it may increases over time, since important alterations in morphology and anatomy occurred. These results show that oil spills in the Amazon varzea can cause severe alterations in the aquatic flora and in the floodplain dynamics.     

Application of rDNA-PCR amplification and DGGE fingerprinting for detection of microbial diversity in a Malaysian crude oil

Two culture-independent methods, namely ribosomal DNA libraries and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), were adopted to examine the microbial community of a Malaysian light crude oil. In this study, both 16S and 18S rDNAs were PCR-amplified from bulk DNA of crude oil samples, cloned, and sequenced. Analyses of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and phylogenetics clustered the 16S and 18S rDNA sequences into seven and six groups, respectively. The ribosomal DNA sequences obtained showed sequence similarity between 90 to 100% to those available in the GenBank database. The closest relatives documented for the 16S rDNAs include member species of Thermoincola and Rhodopseudomonas, whereas the closest fungal relatives include Acremonium, Ceriporiopsis, Xeromyces, Lecythophora, and Candida. Others were affiliated to uncultured bacteria and uncultured ascomycete. The 16S rDNA library demonstrated predomination by a single uncultured bacterial type by >80% relative abundance. The predomination was confirmed by DGGE analysis.     

Organosulphur constituents in garlic oil elicit antennal and behavioural responses from the yellow fever mosquito

Garlic (Allium sativum) and its essential oil have long been used for their distinct flavour, therapeutic effects and as a topical and systemic insect repellent. We tested the hypothesis that the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae), responds electrophysiologically and behaviourally to specific components of the steam‐distilled essential oil of garlic. In coupled gas chromatographic‐electroantennographic detection analyses of garlic oil, antennae of female Ae. aegypti responded to 14 compounds. Seven of them [diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide, diallyl tetrasulphide, 2‐(2,3‐dithia‐5‐hexenyl)‐3,4‐dihydro‐2H‐thiopyran, 3‐(2,3‐dithia‐5‐hexenyl)‐3,4‐dihydro‐2H‐thiopyran, 6‐methyl‐4,5,8,9‐tetrathiadodeca‐1,11‐diene and 4,5,9,10‐tetrathiatrideca‐1,12‐diene] were isolated or synthesized and tested for their ability to repel host‐seeking female Ae. aegypti. A solution of diallyl trisulphide and diallyl tetrasulphide applied to a human forearm provided protection from female mosquitoes significantly longer than the paraffin oil control. All compounds had mean protection times significantly shorter than an equivalent dose of the ‘gold standard’N,N‐diethyl‐3‐methylbenzamide. Understanding the common moiety in organosulfur compounds that causes repellence could lead to the design of analogues that are more effective than their natural counterparts in repelling mosquitoes.     

A large proportion of North American net ecosystem production is offset by emissions from harvested products,river/stream evasion,and biomass burning

Diagnostic carbon cycle models produce estimates of net ecosystem production (NEP, the balance of net primary production and heterotrophic respiration) by integrating information from (i) satellite‐based observations of land surface vegetation characteristics; (ii) distributed meteorological data; and (iii) eddy covariance flux tower observations of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) (used in model parameterization). However, a full bottom‐up accounting of NEE (the vertical carbon flux) that is suitable for integration with atmosphere‐based inversion modeling also includes emissions from decomposition/respiration of harvested forest and agricultural products, CO₂ evasion from streams and rivers, and biomass burning. Here, we produce a daily time step NEE for North America for the year 2004 that includes NEP as well as the additional emissions. This NEE product was run in the forward mode through the CarbonTracker inversion setup to evaluate its consistency with CO₂ concentration observations. The year 2004 was climatologically favorable for NEP over North America and the continental total was estimated at 1730 ± 370 TgC yr^?1 (a carbon sink). Harvested product emissions (316 ± 80 TgC yr^?1), river/stream evasion (158 ± 50 TgC yr^?1), and fire emissions (142 ± 45 TgC yr^?1) counteracted a large proportion (35%) of the NEP sink. Geographic areas with strong carbon sinks included Midwest US croplands, and forested regions of the Northeast, Southeast, and Pacific Northwest. The forward mode run with CarbonTracker produced good agreement between observed and simulated wintertime CO₂ concentrations aggregated over eight measurement sites around North America, but overestimates of summertime concentrations that suggested an underestimation of summertime carbon uptake. As terrestrial NEP is the dominant offset to fossil fuel emission over North America, a good understanding of its spatial and temporal variation – as well as the fate of the carbon it sequesters ─ is needed for a comprehensive view of the carbon cycle.