Estimating net primary productivity of grasslands from field biomass measurements in temperate northern China

Data on field biomass measurements in temperate grasslands of northern China (141 samples from 74 sites) were obtained from 23 Chinese journals, reports and books. Net primary productivity (NPP) of grasslands was estimated using three algorithms (peak live biomass, peak standing crop and maximum minus minimum live biomass), respectively, based on availability of biomass data in sites. 135 samples which have aboveground biomass (AGB) measurements, have peak AGB ranges from 20 to 2021 g m^–2 (mean = 325.3) and the aboveground NPP (ANPP) ranges from 15 to 1647.1 g m^–2 per year (mean = 295.7). 72 samples which have belowground biomass (BGB) measurements, have peak BGB ranges from 226.5 to 12827.5 g m^–2 (mean = 3116) and the belowground NPP (BNPP) ranges from 15.8 to 12827.5 g m^–2 per year (mean = 2425.6). In total 66 samples have the total NPP (TNPP), ranging from 55.3 to 13347.8 g m^–2 per year (mean = 2980.3). Mean peak biomass and NPP varied from different geographical sampling locations, but they had a general rough regularity in ten grasslands. Meadow, mountain and alpine grasslands had high biomass and NPP (sometimes including saline grassland). Forested steppe, saline grassland and desert had median values. Meadowed and typical steppes had low biomass and NPP (sometimes including desert). The lowest biomass and NPP occurred in deserted steppe and stepped desert. Grassland ANPP has significant positive relationships with annual and summer precipitation as well as summer temperature (all p<0.01). However, grassland BNPP and TNPP have more significant negative relationships with summer temperature (p<0.01) than with annual temperature (p<0.05). The analysis of climate – productivity correlations implied that aboveground productivity is more controlled by rainfall, whereas belowground and total productivity is more influenced by temperature in the temperate grasslands of northern China. The present study might underestimate grassland NPP in northern China due to limitation of biomass measurements. Data on relative long-term aboveground and belowground biomass dynamics, as well as data of standing dead matter, litterfall, decomposition and turnover, are required if grassland NPP is to be more accurately estimated and the role of temperate grasslands in the regional to global carbon cycles is to be fully appreciated. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Asymmetric responses of primary productivity to precipitation extremes: A synthesis of grassland precipitation manipulation experiments

Climatic changes are altering Earth's hydrological cycle, resulting in altered precipitation amounts, increased interannual variability of precipitation, and more frequent extreme precipitation events. These trends will likely continue into the future, having substantial impacts on net primary productivity (NPP) and associated ecosystem services such as food production and carbon sequestration. Frequently, experimental manipulations of precipitation have linked altered precipitation regimes to changes in NPP. Yet, findings have been diverse and substantial uncertainty still surrounds generalities describing patterns of ecosystem sensitivity to altered precipitation. Additionally, we do not know whether previously observed correlations between NPP and precipitation remain accurate when precipitation changes become extreme. We synthesized results from 83 case studies of experimental precipitation manipulations in grasslands worldwide. We used meta‐analytical techniques to search for generalities and asymmetries of aboveground NPP (ANPP) and belowground NPP (BNPP) responses to both the direction and magnitude of precipitation change. Sensitivity (i.e., productivity response standardized by the amount of precipitation change) of BNPP was similar under precipitation additions and reductions, but ANPP was more sensitive to precipitation additions than reductions; this was especially evident in drier ecosystems. Additionally, overall relationships between the magnitude of productivity responses and the magnitude of precipitation change were saturating in form. The saturating form of this relationship was likely driven by ANPP responses to very extreme precipitation increases, although there were limited studies imposing extreme precipitation change, and there was considerable variation among experiments. This highlights the importance of incorporating gradients of manipulations, ranging from extreme drought to extreme precipitation increases into future climate change experiments. Additionally, policy and land management decisions related to global change scenarios should consider how ANPP and BNPP responses may differ, and that ecosystem responses to extreme events might not be predicted from relationships found under moderate environmental changes.     

降水时间对内蒙古温带草原地上净初级生产力的影响

全球气候变化下降水时间的改变将深刻影响草原生态系统地上净初级生产力(ANPP),而草原生态系统ANPP是区域碳循环的重要过程.利用1998-2007年的SPOT-VEG NDVI数据并结合111个样点的ANPP地面样方调查数据,获得了内蒙古温带草原1998-2007年的ANPP区域数据,依此分析了中国内蒙古温带草原以及区域内的3种植被类型(荒漠草原、典型草原、草甸草原)降水时间对ANPP的影响.研究结果表明,对于整个内蒙古温带草原来说,一个水分年内(从上一年9月份到当年地上生物量达最大值时的8月份)影响ANPP较为重要的降水月份为2-7月份,其中,5-7月份降水尤为重要.具体到每个月降水的影响,研究发现,7月份降水最重要,而仍处于生长季的8月份降水相对于其他生长季降水作用最小;影响不同草地类型最重要的降水时期存在一定差异,对荒漠草原和典型草原地区来说,ANPP达最大值前3个月(5-7月份)的生长季降水最重要,而8月份降水影响较小,而草甸草原地区8月份和非生长季的3、4月份降水最重要,但各个降水时期降水对ANPP的影响都较荒漠草原和典型草原小,大部分地区降水对ANPP的影响不显著.     

1982-2010年中国草地净初级生产力时空动态及其与气候因子的关系

植被净初级生产力（NPP）及其与气候变化的响应研究是全球变化的核心内容之一。论文基于长时间序列遥感数据和气象数据,通过光能利用率模型（Carnegie-Ames-Stanford approach, CASA模型）模拟了1982-2010 年中国草地NPP,进而分析其时空变化特征及其与气候水热因子的相关性。结果表明：（1）1982-2010年中国草地年平均NPP为282.0 gC m^-2a^-1,年总NPP的多年平均值为988.3 TgC;空间分布上呈现东南部高西北部低的特征。（2）近30年中国草地NPP增加速率为0.6 gC m^-2a^-1,呈增加趋势的面积占中国草地总面积的67.2%;总体上,中国草地NPP呈极显著和显著增加的比例（35.8%、8.0%）大于呈极显著和显著减少的比例（5.8%、4.8%）;NPP明显增加的区域主要包括青藏高原西部、阿拉善高原、新疆西部;明显降低的区域主要分布在内蒙古地区;不同年代际和不同草地类型的NPP变化趋势差异明显。（3）草地NPP与降水量的相关性高于与温度的相关性。不同草地类型NPP对气温、降水量的响应程度不同,其中温性荒漠草原 、温性草原、温性草甸草原的NPP与降水量均达到显著正相关（P<0.05）。     

Nitrogen controls the net primary production of an alpine Kobresia meadow in the northern Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau

Net primary production (NPP) is a fundamental property of natural ecosystems. Understanding the temporal variations of NPP could provide new insights into the responses of communities to environmental factors. However, few studies based on long‐term field biomass measurements have directly addressed this subject in the unique environment of the Qinghai‐Tibet plateau (QTP). We examined the interannual variations of NPP during 2008–2015 by monitoring both aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) and belowground net primary productivity (BNPP), and identified their relationships with environmental factors with the general linear model (GLM) and structural equation model (SEM). In addition, the interannual variation of root turnover and its controls were also investigated. The results show that the ANPP and BNPP increased by rates of 15.01 and 143.09 g/m² per year during 2008–2015, respectively. BNPP was mainly affected by growing season air temperature (GST) and growing season precipitation (GSP) rather than mean annual air temperature (MAT) or mean annual precipitation (MAP), while ANPP was only controlled by GST. In addition, available nitrogen (AN) was significantly positively associated with BNPP and ANPP. Root turnover rate averaged 30%/year, increased with soil depth, and was largely controlled by GST. Our results suggest that alpine Kobresia meadow was an N‐limited ecosystem, and the NPP on the QTP might increase further in the future in the context of global warming and nitrogen deposition.     

黄河流域草地净初级生产力时空动态及其驱动机制

黄河流域是生态系统的敏感区,流域草地生态系统在气候变化和人类活动驱动下发生了显著变化。基于多源遥感影像和气象站点资料等,采用改进后的CASA模型估算2001—2018年黄河流域草地净初级生产力(NPP),评估定量反演结果精度,分析研究时段内流域草地净初级生产力时空动态,探讨气候要素和人类活动对流域草地净初级生产力的影响。结果表明：1)基于改进的CASA模型能够高精度模拟黄河流域草地NPP。2)2001—2018年黄河流域草地NPP呈增加趋势,且在2013年发生突变。2001—2013年气候和人类活动均促进流域草地NPP增加,而2013年后人类活动抑制流域草地NPP增加的作用明显增强,抑制区域面积较前一阶段增加34.89%。整体上,人类活动对草地NPP的影响强度低于气候要素影响强度。3)耕地和建设用地面积的变化,是驱动实际净初级生产力动态的重要人类活动要素。耕地和建设用地面积的增加与草地面积减少、实际净初级生产力增加速率的降低紧密相关。伴随经济发展,应坚持实施退耕还林还草政策,并加强对草地生态保护的监督。     

Postfire response of North American boreal forest net primary productivity analyzed with satellite observations

Fire is a major disturbance in the boreal forest, and has been shown to release significant amounts of carbon (C) to the atmosphere through combustion. However, less is known about the effects on ecosystems following fire, which include reduced productivity and changes in decomposition in the decade immediately following the disturbance. In this study, we assessed the impact of fire on net primary productivity (NPP) in the North American boreal forest using a 17‐year record of satellite NDVI observations at 8‐ km spatial resolution together with a light‐use efficiency model. We identified 61 fire scars in the satellite observations using digitized fire burn perimeters from a database of large fires. We studied the postfire response of NPP by analyzing the most impacted pixel within each burned area. NPP decreased in the year following the fire by 60–260 g C m^?2 yr^?1 (30–80%). By comparing pre‐ and postfire observations, we estimated a mean NPP recovery period for boreal forests of about 9 years, with substantial variability among fires. We incorporated this behavior into a carbon cycle model simulation to demonstrate these effects on net ecosystem production. The disturbance resulted in a release of C to the atmosphere during the first 8 years, followed by a small, but long‐lived, sink lasting 150 years. Postfire net emissions were three times as large as from a model run without changing NPP. However, only small differences in the C cycle occurred between runs after 8 years due to the rapid recovery of NPP. We conclude by discussing the effects of fire on the long‐term continental trends in satellite NDVI observed across boreal North America during the 1980s and 1990s.     

刈割和施肥对高寒草甸功能多样性与地上净初级生产力关系的影响

功能多样性(FD)对群落地上净初级生产力(ANPP, g·m^-2·a^-1)有直接的影响, 但不同扰动因素对FD-ANPP关系将产生何种影响尚不明确。通过在青藏高原高寒矮生嵩草(Kobresia humilis)草甸连续7年(2007-2013)的刈割(3水平: 不刈割、留茬3 cm的中度刈割和留茬1 cm的重度刈割)和施肥(2水平: 施用12.75 g·m^-2·a^-1尿素+ 3.06 g·m^-2·a^-1 (NH₄)₂HPO₄、不施肥)控制实验, 研究了刈割、施肥、年份及其交互作用对ANPP和FD的影响以及FD-ANPP关系的变化。研究结果显示: (1)增加刈割强度和土壤养分均显著提高了ANPP, 但其效应随着年份的不同而有差异, ANPP随着时间呈波动下降趋势, 而FD则随年度增大; (2)施肥显著增加了FD, 而刈割对FD无显著影响(p > 0.05); (3)在6种刈割和施肥处理组合下, FD-ANPP关系随时间的变化主要受刈割扰动影响呈现正线性相关和无相关两种模式。无论施肥与否, 不刈割(C0)群落中FD和ANPP之间无相关(n = 90, p > 0.05); 而刈割群落中FD和ANPP之间为正相关(n = 90, p < 0.05)。由于刈割同时提高了FD和ANPP, 促使二者在刈割群落中呈现正线性相关。(4)尽管施肥不影响FD和ANPP的关系模式, 但与刈割共同作用, 影响FD-ANPP关系的截距或斜率。上述结果说明, 刈割扰动和土壤营养资源共同影响着FD-ANPP关系, 而刈割在改变其关系模式方面起主导作用。     

Asymmetry in above‐ and belowground productivity responses to N addition in a semi‐arid temperate steppe

Nitrogen (N) enrichment often increases aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) of the ecosystem, but it is unclear if belowground net primary productivity (BNPP) track responses of ANPP. Moreover, the frequency of N inputs may affect primary productivity but is rarely studied. To assess the response patterns of above‐ and belowground productivity to rates of N addition under different addition frequencies, we manipulated the rate (0–50 g N m^?2 year^?1) and frequency (twice vs. monthly additions per year) of NH₄NO₃ inputs for six consecutive years in a temperate grassland in northern China and measured ANPP and BNPP from 2012 to 2014. In the low range of N addition rates, BNPP showed the greatest negative response and ANPP showed the greatest positive responses with increases in N addition (<10 g N m^?2 year^?1). As N addition increased beyond 10 g N m^?2 year^?1, increases in ANPP dampened and decreases in BNPP ceased altogether. The response pattern of net primary productivity (combined above‐ and belowground; NPP) corresponded more closely to ANPP than to BNPP. The N effects on BNPP and BNPP/NPP (f_BNPP) were not dependent on N addition frequency in the range of N additions typically associated with N deposition. BNPP was more sensitive to N addition frequency than ANPP, especially at low rates of N addition. Our findings provide new insights into how plants regulate carbon allocation to different organs with increasing N rates and changing addition frequencies. These root response patterns, if incorporated into Earth system models, may improve the predictive power of C dynamics in dryland ecosystems in the face of global atmospheric N deposition.     

地形对新疆昌吉州草地净初级生产力分布格局的影响

新疆草地资源丰富且地形多变,地形作为影响植被生产力最主要的环境因素之一却未被充分考虑。以Landsat和DEM为数据源,以新疆昌吉州草地为研究对象,应用CASA模型计算得到连年的净初级生产力,采用Arc GIS的空间分析方法对新疆昌吉州草地2000—2016年的净初级生产力分布进行了分析。研究结果表明,地形对生产力的分布有着显著影响,在海拔、坡度和坡向3个地形因子对整体趋势变化的影响分析中发现,坡度引起的NPP变化最大,坡向次之,海拔较小。在整体特征上,海拔每升高30 m,生产力增加4.11 g/m~2;坡度每增加1°生产力增加-0.225 g/m~2;N坡向生产力水平最高(23.23 g/m~2),SW坡向最低(3.54 g/m~2)。不同生产力年份生产力在地形因子作用下变化趋势相同但变化幅度不同,较高生产力年份中3个地形因子的变化幅度都是最大的。     

高寒草地植物群落地上-地下净初级生产力权衡

植物生产力分配和权衡是植物生态学研究中的热点,反映植物对环境的适应性,是了解植物响应全球气候变化的关键。青藏高原作为气候变化敏感区,研究其植物地上与地下部分权衡对了解高寒草地植被生存策略和生态系统可持续发展具有重要意义。目前,生物量分配调控机制已被广泛研究,但主要使用植物根冠比和地上-地下生物量比等方法来表征植物分配模式,缺乏考虑因植物生长周期导致的差异。使用青藏高原高寒草地103个样点的地上和地下净初级生产力数据,分析高寒草甸和高寒草原两种主要草地类型的地上-地下净初级生产力权衡关系。利用气候因素和土壤因素等相关数据,结合方差分析、相关分析、相对重要性分析和结构方程模型的方法,探究环境因素对两种草地类型地上-地下净初级生产力权衡的影响机制。研究发现：（1）高寒草甸的地上净初级生产力、地下净初级生产力和土壤养分含量显著高于高寒草原（P<0.05）;（2）高寒草地植被生产力均向地下权衡（0.0199）,且高寒草原（0.0354）的权衡值高于高寒草甸（0.0173）;（3）结构方程模型发现,年平均降水量、土壤容重和土壤速效氮含量是影响高寒草甸生产力权衡的主导因子,而年平均温度和年平均降水量是影响高寒草原生产力权衡的主导因子。研究表明高寒草甸的生产力权衡主要受气候和土壤因素共同影响,而高寒草原主要受气候因素调节。研究为理解植物地上-地下生物量分配调控机制提供了新的视角和方法,对系统了解高寒草地生物量分配模式和准确预测高寒草地植被动态过程具有指导意义。     

Spatial variations in aboveground net primary productivity along a climate gradient in Eurasian temperate grassland: effects of mean annual precipitation and its seasonal distribution

Concomitant changes of annual precipitation and its seasonal distribution within the context of global climate change have dramatic impacts on aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) of grassland ecosystems. In this study, combining remote sensing products with in situ measurements of ANPP, we quantified the effects of mean annual precipitation (MAP) and precipitation seasonal distribution (PSD) on the spatial variations in ANPP along a climate gradient in Eurasian temperate grassland. Our results indicated that ANPP increased exponentially with MAP for the entire temperate grassland, but linearly for a specific grassland type, i.e. the desert steppe, typical steppe, and meadow steppe from arid to humid regions. The slope of the linear relationship appeared to be steeper in the more humid meadow steppe than that in the drier typical and desert steppes. PSD also had significant effect on the spatial variations in ANPP. It explained 39.4% of the spatial ANPP for the entire grassland investigated, being comparable with the explanatory power of MAP (40.0%). On the other hand, the relative contribution of PSD and MAP is grassland type specific. MAP exhibited a much stronger explanatory power than PSD for the desert steppe and the meadow steppe at the dry and wet end, respectively. However, PSD was the dominant factor affecting the spatial variation in ANPP for the median typical steppe. Our results imply that altered pattern of PSD due to climate change may be as important as the total amount in terms of effects on ANPP in Eurasian temperate grassland.     

内蒙古羊草草原植物群落地上初级生产力时间动态对降水变化的响应

植被生产力对水热因子的反应是气候 -植被关系研究的焦点之一。利用 1981～ 1994年的固定围栏样地植物群落调查数据及同期降水资料 ,分析了羊草草原群落地上初级生产力和降水的年际变化特征及植物群落地上初级生产力的时间动态与降水年际变化的相互关系。结果表明 ,羊草草原年降水以及月降水的年际波动明显 ;年内降水分配不均匀 ,降水集中分布于 6～ 8月份。月均降水以 7月份最高 ,基本呈对称分布。群落地上初级生产力年际间变化介于年降水与月降水的年际变化之间。影响群落地上初级生产力时间动态最显著的因子是植物生长周期内前一年 10月至当年 8月的累积降水 ,而与年降水和月降水无显著相关。群落地上初级生产力时间动态对累积降水波动的反应呈显著的二次曲线关系 ,与空间尺度上地上初级生产力与年降水呈线性相关关系不同。因此 ,降水波动对羊草草原地上初级生产力的影响是一个累积效应 ,确定对植物生长产生影响的有效降水时间对建立羊草草原生产力模型关系具有十分重要的意义。     

定量评价人类活动对净初级生产力的影响

以人类活动为主导的城市扩张和土地覆被变化对城市生态环境产生了重要影响,并与气候变化共同影响植被净初级生产力(NPP),但目前从时空尺度上脱离气候干扰仅以人类活动为主导因素来定量分析其对植被NPP影响的研究尚不充分.本研究以广州市为研究区,利用CASA模型估算2001—2013年实际净初级生产力(NPP_act),结合CHIKUGO模型估算得到的潜在净初级生产力(NPP_p)计算因土地覆被变化导致的NPP损失(NPP_lulc),并建立相对贡献指数(RCI)定量分析和评价在城市扩张过程中人类活动对NPP的影响.结果表明:2001—2013年间,广州总体及其5片区NPP_act和NPP_lulc分别呈减少和增加趋势,并存在明显的空间差异性;RCI呈明显增加趋势,东北片区RCI值最低,为0.31,表明气候变化是其NPP变化的主要原因,其他4个片区的RCI值均高于0.5,说明4个片区人为干扰严重,人类活动是其NPP减少的主导因素;广州市及其5片区的RCI变化斜率均大于0,人类活动对植被的干扰逐年增强,北部片区RCI变化斜率值最大(0.693),人为干扰增加趋势最明显.     

Carbon and nitrogen dynamics in a Pinus densiflora forest with low and high stand densities

Aims Understanding carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics and their dependence on the stand density of an even-aged, mature forest provides knowledge that is important for forest management. This study investigated the differences in ecosystem total C and N storage and flux between a low-density stand (LD) and a high-density stand (HD) and examined the effects of stand density on aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP), total belowground C allocation (TBCA) and net ecosystem production (NEP) in a naturally regenerated, 65- to 75-year-old Pinus densiflora S. et Z. forest.Methods LD (450 trees ha^-1) and HD (842 trees ha^-1) were established in an even-aged, mature P. densiflora forest in September 2006. The forest had been naturally regenerated following harvesting, and the stand density was naturally maintained without any artificial management such as thinning. The diameter at breast height (DBH ≥ 5.0cm) of all live stems within the stands was measured yearly from 2007 to 2011. To compare C and N storage and fluxes in LD and HD, C and N pools in aboveground and belowground biomass, the forest floor, coarse woody debris (CWD) and soil; soil CO₂ efflux (R S); autotrophic respiration (R A); litter production; and soil N availability were measured. Further, ANPP, TBCA and NEP were estimated from plot-based measurement data.Important findings Ecosystem C (Mg C ha^-1) and N (Mg N ha^-1) storage was, respectively, 173.0±7.3 (mean ± SE) and 4.69±0.30 for LD and 162±11.8 and 4.08±0.18 for HD. There were no significant differences in C and N storage in the ecosystem components, except for soils, between the two stands. In contrast, there were significant differences in aboveground ANPP and TBCA between the two stands (P < 0.05). Litterfall, biomass increment and R S were major C flux components with values of, respectively, 3.89, 3.74 and 9.07 Mg C ha^-1 year^-1 in LD and 3.15, 2.94 and 7.06 Mg C ha^-1 year^-1 in HD. Biometric-based NEP (Mg C ha^-1 year^-1) was 4.18 in LD and 5.50 in HD. Although the even-aged, mature P. densiflora forest had similar C and N allocation patterns, it showed different C and N dynamics depending on stand density. The results of the current study will be useful for elucidating the effects of stand density on C and N storage and fluxes, which are important issues in managing natural mature forest ecosystems.     

汉江流域植被净初级生产力时空格局及成因

运用MOD17A3-NPP等数据,分析汉江流域植被NPP的时空格局及其形成演变机理,为区域生态环境管治提供科学理论依据。运用GIS空间分析法、线性拟合法研究流域NPP的时空格局,结合相关系数法、土地利用程度指数等方法探析成因。结果显示:(1)汉江流域植被NPP多年平均值为439 g C m~(-2)a~(-1),整体呈微小的波动上升趋势,年增长幅度为3.11 g C m~(-2)a~(-1)。植被NPP集中分布在300—600 g C m~(-2)a~(-1),占全域面积的83.65%。(2)从流域空间上看,多年平均NPP呈上游中游下游,各子流域内部差异呈上游中游下游。高值区集中分布在汉中,十堰、襄樊和荆门平均NPP呈下降趋势的所占面积最大。(3)垂直景观上植被NPP的空间分布往往受水热综合作用的影响,汉江流域降水是植被NPP累积的主要制约因素。(4)垂直方向上NPP呈规律性变化:高程上表现为"陡升-下降-缓升-陡降,坡向上为阳坡半阳坡半阴坡阴坡。(5)浅山丘陵区NPP变化主要受土地利用方式的影响,高山区NPP变化受气候变化的影响。汉江流域植被NPP稳定,中下游平原区植被NPP略有下降;气候和地形特征决定了植被NPP的空间分布特征,气候变化和人类活动对植被NPP的变化有重要影响。     

21世纪上半叶内蒙古草地植被净初级生产力变化趋势

基于中国气象局国家气候中心新发布的中短期适应气候变化的新情景(RCP4.5)和极端情景(RCP8.5)下的气候预估数据,采用空间化后的CENTURY模型模拟探讨2011－2050年内蒙古草地植被净初级生产力(NPP)的时空变化特征.结果表明: 区域尺度上,未来气候变化情景下内蒙古草地NPP年下降速率分别为0.57 g C·m^-2·a^-1(RCP4.5)、0.89 g C·m^-2·a^-1(RCP8.5);相对于基准时段,RCP4.5情景下内蒙古草地NPP在2020s、2030s、2040s分别下降11.6%、12.0%、18.0%,而RCP8.5情景下降幅分别为23.8%、21.2%、30.1%.不同气候情景下内蒙古草地NPP时空变化特征差异较大,但即使在RCP4.5下未来40年绝大部分草地NPP也将呈现下降趋势,15.6%的草地减产超过20%.这表明未来气候变化情景下内蒙古草地降水略增的态势不足以补偿因温度升高对草地植被初级生产力所产生的负面作用,草地资源的可持续发展将面临更大挑战.     

Carbon dynamics,net primary productivity and human‐appropriated net primary productivity across a forest–cocoa farm landscape in West Africa

Terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP) is an important metric of ecosystem functioning; however, there are little empirical data on the NPP of human‐modified ecosystems, particularly smallholder, perennial crops like cocoa (Theobroma cacao), which are extensive across the tropics. Human‐appropriated NPP (HANPP) is a measure of the proportion of a natural system's NPP that has either been reduced through land‐use change or harvested directly and, previously, has been calculated to estimate the scale of the human impact on the biosphere. Additionally, human modification can create shifts in NPP allocation and decomposition, with concomitant impacts on the carbon cycle. This study presents the results of 3 years of intensive monitoring of forest and smallholder cocoa farms across disturbance, management intensity, distance from forest and farm age gradients. We measured among the highest reported NPP values in tropical forest, 17.57 ± 2.1 and 17.7 ± 1.6 Mg C ha^?1 year^?1 for intact and logged forest, respectively; however, the average NPP of cocoa farms was still higher, 18.8 ± 2.5 Mg C ha^?1 year^?1, which we found was driven by cocoa pod production. We found a dramatic shift in litterfall residence times, where cocoa leaves decomposed more slowly than forest leaves and shade tree litterfall decomposed considerably faster, indicating significant changes in rates of nutrient cycling. The average HANPP value for all cocoa farms was 2.1 ± 1.1 Mg C ha^?1 year^?1; however, depending on the density of shade trees, it ranged from ?4.6 to 5.2 Mg C ha^?1 year^?1. Therefore, rather than being related to cocoa yield, HANPP was reduced by maintaining higher shade levels. Across our monitored farms, 18.9% of farm NPP was harvested (i.e., whole cocoa pods) and only 1.1% (i.e., cocoa beans) was removed from the system, suggesting that the scale of HANPP in smallholder cocoa agroforestry systems is relatively small.