Fit-climbing test: a field test for indoor rock climbing

The aim of this study was to develop an indoor rock-climbing test on an artificial wall (Fit-climbing test). Thirteen climbers (elite group [EG] = 6; recreational group [RG] = 7) performed the following tests: (a) familiarization in the Fit-climbing test, (b) the Fit-climbing test, and (c) a retest to evaluate the Fit-climbing test's reliability. Gas exchange, blood lactate concentration, handgrip strength, and heart rate were measured during the test. Oxygen uptake during the Fit-climbing test was not different between groups (EG = 8.4 ± 1.1 L; RG = 7.9 ± 1.5 L, p > 0.05). The EG performance (120 ± 7 movements) was statistically higher than the RG climbers' performance (78 ± 13 movements) during the Fit-climbing test. Consequently, the oxygen cost per movement during the Fit-climbing test of the EG was significantly lower than that of the RG (p < 0.05). Handgrip strength was higher in the EG when compared with that in the RG in both pre-Fit- and post-Fit-climbing test (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in any other variables analyzed during the Fit-climbing test (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the performance in the Fit-climbing test presented high reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.97). Therefore, the performance during the Fit-climbing test may be an alternative to evaluate rock climbers because of its specificity and relation to oxygen cost per movement during climbing.     

Association between MCT1 T1470A polymorphism and climbing status in Polish and Japanese climbers

Sport climbing will become an official event at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics; it is a popular wilderness sport among athletes and amateurs. Our previous study suggested that the T1470A polymorphism (rs1049434) of the monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) gene is associated with athletic performance and physiological phenotypes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the frequency of MCT1 T1470A polymorphism in Polish and Japanese climbers using a case-control study. Our sample consisted of 226 climbers (Japanese: n = 100, 64 male and 36 female; Polish: n = 126, 97 male and 29 female) and 1028 non-athletic controls (Japanese, n = 407; Polish = 621) who were genotyped for the MCT1 T1470A polymorphism (rs1049434) using the TaqMan SNP genotyping assay or restriction enzyme. The frequency of the TT genotype and T allele was significantly higher in climbers than in controls among the Polish subjects (genotype: p = 0.030, allele: p = 0.010); however, there were no significant differences in the genotype and allelic frequencies between the Japanese climbers and controls (genotype: p = 0.968; allele: p = 0.803). Our results suggested that the frequency of the T allele (TT+TA genotype) in the MCT1 T1470A polymorphism is over-represented in Polish climbers but not in Japanese climbers. In addition, the frequency of the T allele and TT genotype in Polish lead climbers is higher than that in controls.     

Effects of acute upper-body vibration on strength and power variables in climbers

Whole-body vibration training has recently received a lot of attention with reported enhancements of strength and power qualities in athletes. This study investigated whether upper-body vibration would be able to augment muscular attributes for climbing performance. Twelve healthy active climbers volunteered for the study. All participants underwent 3 treatments--arm cranking (AC), upper-body vibration (UBV), and non-UBV (NUBV)--in a balanced random order, conducted on separate days. Upper-body vibration was generated via a commercialized electric-powered dumbbell with a rotating axis that delivered oscillatory movements to the shoulders and arms. The UBV treatment consisted of performing 5 upper-body exercises for a total duration of 5 minutes. The UBV frequency was set at 26 Hz, amplitude 3 mm. For the NUBV treatment, the participants performed the exact exercises and time constraints as UBV; however, the vibration dumbbell was set at 0 Hz and 0 mm amplitude. The third treatment consisted of AC, which was performed at 75 k.min(-1) for 5 minutes. Pre- and postmuscular performance measures of medicine ball throw, hand grip strength, and a specific climbing maneuver were performed after each treatment. There were no significant treatment differences on medicine ball throw, hand grip strength, and the specific climbing maneuver. Acute UBV exposure did not demonstrate the expected potential neuromuscular enhancements on the climbing performance tests selected for this study.     

Effect of two recovery methods on repeated closed-handed and open-handed weight-assisted pull-ups

The purpose of this study was to examine 2 recovery modalities (with and without an ice bag treatment) on closed-handed and open-handed weight-assisted pull-ups in recreationally-trained rock climbers. Healthy and recreationally active volunteers (n = 9) completed 4 counterbalanced trials separated by 72 hours. Trials included 3 sets of closed-handed and open-handed weight-assisted pull-ups supported by 50% of body weight, until failure. Between each set, participants sat quietly in a chair and engaged in approximately 20 minutes of either passive or ice bag treatment. Ice bags were placed on the participants' arms and shoulders. Heart rate (HR), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), session-RPE (S-RPE), and perceived recovery were also assessed. Hand-grip strength pretrial and posttrial was not different between ice bag conditions. Also, there were no differences between treatments for HR, RPE, perceived recovery, S-RPE, or comfort ratings. The overall number of open-handed pull-ups (mean ± SD = 19 ± 5) was lower than closed-handed pull-ups (34 ± 14; p < 0.001). Ice bag recovery attenuated the decrease in open-handed pull-up performance for sets 2 (22 ± 5; p = 0.004) and 3 (22 ± 5; p = 0.003) relative to set 3 using passive recovery only (i.e., no ice bag; 17 ± 6). There were no differences (p = 0.31) between treatments for closed-handed pull-ups. The findings support the recommendations to use ice bags for recovery between bouts of rock climbing that involve a predominantly open-handed grip to maintain performance.     

Kinematic and EMG analysis of horizontal bimanual climbing in humans

Climbing is an increasingly popular recreational and competitive behavior, engaged in a variety of environments and styles. However, injury rates are high in climbing populations, especially in the upper extremity and shoulder. Despite likely arising from an arboreal, climbing ancestor and being closely related to primates that are highly proficient climbers, the modern human shoulder has devolved a capacity for climbing. Limited biomechanical research exists on manual climbing performance. This study assessed kinematic and muscular demands during a bimanual climbing task that mimicked previous work on climbing primates. Thirty participants were recruited – 15 experienced and 15 inexperienced climbers. Motion capture and electromyography (EMG) measured elbow, thoracohumeral and trunk angles, and activity of twelve shoulder muscles, respectively, of the right-side while participants traversed across a horizontal climbing apparatus. Statistical parametric mapping was used to detect differences between groups in kinematics and muscle activity. Experienced climbers presented different joint motions that more closely mimicked the kinematics of climbing primates, including more elbow flexion (p = 0.0045) and internal rotation (p = 0.021), and less thoracohumeral elevation (p = 0.046). Similarly, like climbing primates, experienced climbers generally activated the shoulder musculature at a lower percentage of maximum, particularly during the exchange from support to swing and swing to support phase. However, high muscle activity was recorded in all muscles in both participant groups. Climbing experience coincided with a positive training effect, but not enough to overcome the high muscular workload of bimanual climbing. Owing to the evolved primary usage of the upper extremity for low-force, below shoulder-height tasks, bimanual climbing may induce high risk of fatigue-related musculoskeletal disorders.     

Physiological adaptation in noncompetitive rock climbers: good for aerobic fitness?

The present investigation aimed to establish whether noncompetitive rock climbing fulfills sports medicine recommendations for maintaining a good level of aerobic fitness. The physiological profile of 13 rock climbers, 8 men (age, 43 +/- 8 years) and 5 women (age, 31 +/- 8 years) was assessed by means of laboratory tests. Maximal aerobic power (VO2peak) and ventilatory threshold (VT) were assessed using a cycloergometer incremental test. During outdoor rock face climbing, VO2 and heart rate (HR) were measured with a portable metabolimeter and the relative steady-state values (VO2 and HR during rock climbing) were computed. Blood lactate was measured during recovery. All data are presented as mean +/- SD. VO2 was 39.1 +/- 4.3 mL.kg.min in men and 39.7 +/- 5 mL.kg.min in women, while VT was 29.4 +/- 3.0 mL.kg.min in men and 28.8 +/- 4.6 mL.kg.min in women. The VO2 during rock climbing was 28.3 +/- 1.5 mL.kg.min in men and 27.5 +/- 3.7 mL.kg.min in women. The HR during rock climbing was 144 +/- 16 b.min in men and 164 +/- 13 b.min in women. The aerobic profile was classified from excellent to superior in accordance with the standards of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). The exercise intensity (VO2 during rock climbing expressed as a percentage of VO2peak) was 70 +/- 6% in men and 72 +/- 8% in women. Moreover, the energy expenditure was 1000-1500 kcal per week. In conclusion, noncompetitive rock climbing has proved to be a typical aerobic activity. The intensity of exercise is comparable to that recommended by the American College of Sports Medicine to maintain good cardiorespiratory fitness.     

Measuring lifting forces in rock climbing: effect of hold size and fingertip structure

This study investigates the hypothesis that shallow edge lifting force in high-level rock climbers is more strongly related to fingertip soft tissue anatomy than to absolute strength or strength to body mass ratio. Fifteen experienced climbers performed repeated maximal single hand lifting exercises on rectangular sandstone edges of depth 2.8, 4.3, 5.8, 7.3, and 12.5 mm while standing on a force measurement platform. Fingertip soft tissue dimensions were assessed by ultrasound imaging. Shallow edge (2.8 and 4.3 mm) lifting force, in newtons or body mass normalized, was uncorrelated with deep edge (12.5 mm) lifting force (r < .1). There was a positive correlation (r = .65, p < .05) between lifting force in newtons at 2.8 mm edge depth and tip of bone to tip of finger pulp measurement (r < .37 at other edge depths). The results confirm the common perception that maximum lifting force on a deep edge ("strength") does not predict maximum force production on very shallow edges. It is suggested that increased fingertip pulp dimension or plasticity may enable increased deformation of the fingertip, increasing the skin to rock contact area on very shallow edges, and thus increase the limit of force production. The study also confirmed previous assumptions of left/right force symmetry in climbers.     

Effects of rock climbing on plant communities on exposed limestone cliffs in the Swiss Jura mountains

Abstract. Exposed cliffs of the Swiss Jura mountains harbour a highly diverse flora with many rare and endangered plant species. Many cliffs are frequently visited by rock climbers. We examined the impact of rock climbing on vascular plants in the lower part of four cliffs of the Gerstelflue (NW Switzerland) by comparing the vegetation of climbed and unclimbed areas. In climbed areas plant cover and species density were reduced. Similarly, the density of forbs and shrubs decreased, whereas the density of ferns tended to increase. In addition, rock climbing caused a significant shift in plant species composition and altered the proportions of different plant life forms. Rock climbing can be a threat to sensitive plants of the limestone cliff community.     

Muscular strength and jumping performance relationships in young women athletes

The relationships between muscular strength and vertical jumping performance were examined in young women (14-19 years) track and field jumpers (n = 20) and volleyball players (n = 21). The knee extensor muscular strength measured at 9 knee angles was correlated with jumping height and peak power at the squat (SJ) and the countermovement (CMJ) vertical jump tests. Pearson product coefficient of correlation was used to test the significance of these relationships (p 0.80). Specifically, in the volleyball players, the strong relationships were noted for muscular strength at the knee angle range of 40 degrees to 90 degrees and CMJ jumping height as well as SJ peak power. Results indicate the dissimilarity in the relationships between the knee extensor muscular strength and jumping performance in the young female track and field jumpers and volleyball players. In addition, it appears that the measure selected to evaluate jumping performance alters the correlational results.     

Sex differences in motor characteristics of elementary school children included/not included in swimming training

The aim of the study was to assess the development of motor abilities in elementary school fifth- to eighth-graders (age 11-14 years) according to sex, age and physical activity. Study sample included 312 subjects divided according to age and sex into four groups: male subjects aged 11-12 (n = 93) and 13-14 years (n = 84); and female subjects aged 11-12 (n = 65) and 13-14 years (n = 70). Then, differences in basic motor abilities between children included (experimental group) and those not included (control group) in swimming training were analyzed. In male fifth- and sixth-graders, experimental group was superior to control group in the variables of trunk repetitive strength, sprint, flexibility and coordination, while in male seventh- and eighth-graders experimental group showed better performance than control group in agility, aerobic endurance and explosive throw and jump strength. In female fifth- and sixth-graders, experimental group proved superior to control group in the variables of explosive strength, coordination, trunk strength and aerobic endurance, whereas in female seventh- and eighth-graders experimental group had better performance in coordination, endurance, explosive strength, speed and flexibility. Discriminative analysis of motor variables between male and female subjects revealed male subjects to be superior in explosive strength, throw strength in particular, coordination and aerobic endurance, whereas female subjects showed better performance in the variables of flexibility and movement frequency, leg movement in particular. Study results showed the formation of appropriate motor system determining achievement of top results in swimming to be influenced by swimming training from age 11 to 14. In male children, motor system was found to integrate coordination/agility, aerobic endurance and explosive strength, whereas in female children it integrated coordination in terms of cortical movement regulation, aerobic endurance, explosive strength and psychomotor speed.     

Relation between fitness tests and match performance in elite Italian soccer referees

This study examined the relation between field-test results and match performance in elite Italian soccer referees. Subjects (n = 22) were all experienced elite-level referees enrolled in the Commissione Arbitri Nazionali (CAN) and thus officiating in the Serie A and B Italian championships. Referees were, on separate occasions, tested for fitness (50-m, 200-m, and 12-minute run tests) and observed a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 3 times (n = 39) during Serie A matches. Match analyses were performed considering 11 match activity categories. Analyses of correlations were performed considering 50-m, 200-m, and 12-minute run test performances as independent variables and total distance, maximal speed distance (runs performed at speeds faster than 24 km.h-1), and high-intensity activity distance (runs performed at speeds faster than 18 km.h-1, high intensity activity [HIA]) as dependent variables. Statistical significance was set at p 相似文献   

Safer mountain climbing using the climbing heartbeat index

As the numbers of middle-aged and elderly mountain climbers have increased with the general aging of the population, accidents during mountain climbing have increased recently. A possible cause of such accidents is an excessively difficult expedition plan. To enjoy safe mountain climbing, the plans must take account of the climber's fitness level. We developed a method to plan mountain climbing using the climbing heartbeat index (CHI). This study is based on the assumption that the work expended when climbing a mountain is equal to the potential energy of the body and load weights elevated to the height of the mountain, and that the work is proportional to the heart rate. The CHI was calculated by the following equation The CHI values examined in this study ( n = 94) showed very small standard deviations and were significantly correlated with the maximum oxygen uptake, .VO(2 max) (ml kg(-1) min(-1)) ( r = -0.934, P < 0.01); it showed a characteristic value corresponding to the fitness level in each subject. In addition, this value remained nearly unchanged even when the load was changed. Therefore, if the CHI value of an individual is known (it can be estimated from .VO(2 max)), safer mountain climbing can be planned accordingly. Once determined, this CHI value can be used repeatedly unless the fitness level of the individual changes.     

Physical fitness and anthropometrical profile of the Brazilian male judo team

The present study had as objectives (1) to compare the morphological and functional characteristics of the male judo players of the Brazilian Team A (n=7) with the judo players of Teams B and C (reserves; n=15), and (2) to verify the association between the variables measured. Thus, 22 athletes from the seven Olympic weight categories were submitted to: a body composition evaluation (body mass, height, ten skinfolds, eight circumferences, three bone diameters and percent body fat estimation); the Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT); maximal strength tests (one repetition-maximum, 1 RM, in bench press, row, and squat); and the Cooper test. One-way analysis of covariance was used to compare the groups. The relationships between variables were determined by the Pearson coefficient correlation. The significance level was fixed at 5%. No significant difference was found in any variable between them. The main significant correlations observed were between the following variables: VO2max and number of throws in the SJFT (r=0.79); percent body fat and estimated VO2max (r=-0.83) and number of throws in the SJFT (r=-0.70); chest circumference and bench press 1 RM (r=0.90) and in the row (r=0.80); and thigh circumference and squat 1 RM (r=0.86). However, there was no significant correlation between circumferences and 1 RM/kg of body mass. According to these results the main conclusions are: (1) the physical variables measured do not discriminate performance when analysis is directed to the best athletes; (2) a higher percent body fat is negatively correlated with performance in activities with body mass locomotion (Cooper test and the SJFT); (3) judo players with higher aerobic power performed better in high-intensity intermittent exercise; (4) judo players with bigger circumferences present bigger absolute maximal strength.     

Woody climbers show greater population genetic differentiation than trees: Insights into the link between ecological traits and diversification

The climbing habit is a key innovation in plants: climbing taxa have higher species richness than nonclimbing sister groups. We evaluated the hypothesis that climbing plant species show greater among‐population genetic differentiation than nonclimber species. We compared the among‐population genetic distance in woody climbers (eight species, 30 populations) and trees (seven species, 29 populations) coexisting in nine communities in a temperate rainforest. We also compared within‐population genetic diversity in co‐occurring woody climbers and trees in two communities. Mean genetic distance between populations of climbers was twice that of trees. Isolation by distance (increase in genetic distance with geographic distance) was greater for climbers. Climbers and trees showed similar within‐population genetic diversity. Our longevity estimate suggested that climbers had shorter generation times, while other biological features often associated with diversification (dispersal and pollination syndromes, mating system, size, and metabolic rate) did not show significant differences between groups. We hypothesize that the greater population differentiation in climbers could result from greater evolutionary responses to local selection acting on initially higher within‐population genetic diversity, which could be driven by neutral processes associated with shorter generation times. Increased population genetic differentiation could be incorporated as another line of evidence when testing for key innovations.     

Comparison of grip strength and isomeric endurance between the right and left hands of men and their relationship with age and other physical parameters.

Maximum handgrip strength and endurance of fatiguing isometric handgrip muscle contraction at 40% of maximum voluntary contraction of the dominant hand were assessed separately for both right and left hands of 99 right-handed men aged 7-73 years. Subjects below 10 years (n = 6) could not follow up the endurance test methods and were excluded. The relationship of handgrip strength and endurance with age and other physical parameters was also assessed. Maximum grip strength and endurance of fatiguing submaximal contraction of the right hand were significantly greater than that of the left hand for most age groups. Grip strength was positively correlated with age from 7-19 years (r = 0.94 for right and r = 0.89 for left) and was negatively correlated with age from 20-73 years (r = -0.74 right and r = -0.69 left). Grip strength was positively correlated with the weight (r = 0.86 right and r = 0.87 left), height (r = 0.88 right and r = 0.87 left) and body surface area (r = 0.9 for both) of the subjects. Endurance of contraction of both hands did not show any relationship with age, different physical parameters or grip strength of the subjects.     

Comparison of the muscle mechanics of the forelimb of three climbers

The climbing behavior, muscle mechanics, and functional properties of selected forelimb muscles were examined to ascertain how three distantly related mammals may be adapted for climbing. To determine if features of the fox squirrel (Stalheim-Smith: J. Morphol. 180:55-68, '84) are general or unique features for a climber, two distantly related climbers, the raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the opossum (Didelphis virginiana), were studied. Muscle mechanics varied: the elbow flexors of the fox squirrel produced significantly more torque per unit mass than did the corresponding muscles of the opossum except at 80 degrees, but not more than the corresponding muscles of the raccoon. On the other hand, there were no statistically significant differences in torque per unit mass among the elbow extensors of the three climbers. Both elbow flexors and elbow extensor had faster contraction times and were more fatigable in the fox squirrel than in the opossum or in the raccoon. The data suggest that the musculoskeletal characteristics of the forelimbs of climbers vary according to behavioral, and possibly phylogenetic, differences.     

Strength training for 1h in humans: effect on the motor performance of normal upper extremities

It has been found that one session of intense muscle strength training decreases muscle strength temporarily and causes neuromuscular fatigue in the trained muscles, but little attention has been given to the effects of neuromuscular fatigue on the other components of motor performance. The purpose of this study was to examine in normal healthy volunteers the effects of a 1-h strength training session on the motor performance of the upper extremity, including reaction time, speed of movement, tapping speed and coordination. Group of 30 healthy female volunteers, aged 29-47 years, were randomly divided into sub-groups, (A and B, n = 15 per group). Both groups first completed a set of motor performance tests on 3 consecutive days. On the 4th day, group A carried out a 1-h muscle strength training session of the upper extremities. Isometric muscle strengths and electromyogram (EMG) data were recorded before the training session. Immediately after the training session the same recordings were repeated, and additional motor performance tests were also performed. Group B carried out only the motor performance tests. The groups exchanged programmes the following week. The 1-h strength training session decreased the isometric muscle strength of wrist flexion by 18% (P < 0.001) and extension by 18% (P < 0.001) in group A, while in group B flexion strength decreased by 19% (P < 0.001) and extension strength by 17% (P < 0.001). All the measured EMG activations also decreased in both groups. There were no statistically significant differences in the results of the motor performance tests between the mean values of the three baseline measurements and the values recorded after the training session. The result was surprising, but straightforward; neuromuscular fatigue induced by a 1-h strength training session of the upper extremities had no effect on the motor performance functions of the hand, as indicated by reaction times, speed of movement, tapping speed and coordination, in these normal healthy female volunteers.     

Ecophysiological traits may explain the abundance of climbing plant species across the light gradient in a temperate rainforest

Climbing plants are a key component of rainforests, but mechanistic approaches to their distribution and abundance are scarce. In a southern temperate rainforest, we addressed whether the dominance of climbing plants across light environments is associated with the expression of ecophysiological traits. In mature forest and canopy gaps, we measured leaf size, specific leaf area, photosynthetic rate, and dark respiration in six of the most abundant woody vines. Mean values of traits and their phenotypic change (%) between mature forest and canopy gaps were predictor variables. Leaf size and specific leaf area were not significantly associated with climbing plant dominance. Variation in gas-exchange traits between mature forest and canopy gaps explained, at least partly, the dominance of climbers in this forest. A greater increase in photosynthetic rate and a lower increase in dark respiration rate when canopy openings occur were related to the success of climbing plant species. Dominant climbers showed a strategy of maximizing exploitation of resource availability but minimizing metabolic costs. Results may reflect phenotypic plasticity or genetic differentiation in ecophysiological traits between light environments. It is suggested that the dominant climbers in this temperate rainforest would be able to cope with forest clearings due to human activities.     

Impact assessment of intense sport climbing on limestone cliffs: Response of rock-dwelling land snails

Exposed limestone cliffs in the Swiss Jura Mountains harbour a diverse gastropod community with some rare species. Sport climbing has recently increased in popularity on these cliffs. We examined the effects of sport climbing and microtopographical features of rock faces on terrestrial gastropods by assessing species diversity and abundance on climbing routes and in unclimbed areas of seven isolated cliffs in the Northern Swiss Jura Mountains. We considered exclusively living individuals resting attached to rock faces. In total, 19 gastropod species were recorded. Six of them were specialized rock-dwelling species, whose individuals spend their entire life on rock faces, feeding on algae and lichens. Plots along climbing routes harboured fewer species of rock-dwelling snails as well as other gastropod species (usually living in the leaf litter layer at the cliffs’ base) than plots in unclimbed control areas. Similarly, both the density of individuals and frequency of occurrence in plots were reduced in both groups of snails on climbing routes. The complexity of the rock surface had little influence on the species richness and abundance of gastropods. Pyramidula pusilla, the species with the smallest shell and a preference to rest underneath overhangs, was less affected by sport climbing than snail species with larger shells and a preference to rest on exposed smooth rock surface. Our findings indicate land snail diversity and abundance are suitable indicators for impact assessment in rocky habitats. Future management plans and actions should therefore not only rely on plants; they ought to consider also gastropods and other invertebrates. Any management plan should include a comprehensive information campaign to show the potential impact of intensive sport climbing on the specialized flora and fauna with the aim of educating the climbers and increasing their compliance with such measures.     

Standard anthropometric, body composition, and strength variables as predictors of jumping performance in elite junior athletes

The aim of the study was to investigate whether variables routinely assessed while testing athletes can also predict movement performance. The relation between jumping performance and standard strength, anthropometric, and body composition variables was examined in elite junior basketball players. The 33 males were tested for maximal vertical jump, as well as for maximal isometric voluntary force and rate of force development of hip and knee extensors. Standard anthropometric and body composition measures (body height, lean body mass, as well as the percentage of fat and muscle tissue) were also taken. Except for maximal isometric forces (0.38 and 0.52 N.kg(-1) for hip and knee extensors, respectively), all correlation coefficients between the selected variables and jump height were insignificant. As a consequence, the corresponding multiple correlation coefficient, R = 0.71, also suggested a moderate predictability of jumping performance by the standard strength tests and anthropometric and body composition variables. The results obtained dispute the use of the examined tests in sport performance assessment, and also question applying the tests for other purposes such as evaluation of training procedures or selection of young athletes. Therefore, the results are in line with the concept that a reliable performance assessment in homogeneous groups of athletes requires predominantly movement-specific testing.