A molecular delivery system by using AFM and nanoneedle

We developed a new low invasive cell manipulation and gene or molecule transfer system in a single living cell by using an atomic force microscope (AFM) and ultra thin needle, a nanoneedle. DNA was immobilized on the surface of the nanoneedle by covalent bonding and avidin-biotin affinity binding. Immobilization of DNA on the nanoneedle was confirmed by measuring the unbinding force between avidin and biotin. The DNA-immobilized nanoneedle was successfully inserted into HEK293 cells. Though TO-PRO-3 iodide staining experiments using confocal microscopy, we observed the immobilized DNA on the surface of the nanoneedle, which was retained after 10 times insertions to and evacuations from a living cell.     

Mechanical sensing of the penetration of various nanoneedles into a living cell using atomic force microscopy

Mechanical responses during insertion of a silicon nanoneedle into a living melanocyte were observed by using an atomic force microscope (AFM). In order to study the dependence of the mechanical response on the shape of the nanoneedle, we prepared various shapes of silicon AFM tips by focused-ion beam (FIB) etching. The force curves showed increases up to 0.65-1.9 nN after contact on the cell surface, and then the force dropped corresponding with the penetration of the needle through the cell membrane. The force required for penetration was significantly smaller than that using a normal pyramidal tip. The force curves with a cylindrical tip showed a shorter indenting distance before penetration than that with the cone-shaped tip. It is considered that the information about the geometry of penetrating material leads to the development of more suitable micro- and nano-materials to insert into a living cell for cell surgery.     

Nanoneedle Surface Modification with 2-Methacryloyloxyethyl Phosphorylcholine Polymer to Reduce Nonspecific Protein Adsorption in a Living Cell

Previously, we developed a new molecular delivery system to target single living cells by using atomic force microscope and ultrathin needle referred to as nanoneedle. This system delivers molecules into the cell by attaching them to the surface of nanoneedle. However, nonspecific protein adsorption on the nanoneedle surface inside the living cells limits the range of application of this system. In the present study, we focused on nonspecific protein adsorption onto the nanoneedle surface inside the cells and examined whether this protein adsorption was reduced by modifying the nanoneedle surface with a biocompatible phospholipid polymer containing 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) unit. MPC polymer coating of the surface of silicon wafer reduced nonspecific adsorption of proteins from liver extracts and prevented the formation of clot-like protein aggregates. MPC polymer also decreased nonspecific adsorption of cytosolic protein onto the nanoneedle surface inside the living cell. On the other hand, MPC polymer showed no effect on nonspecific mechanical interaction between nanoneedle and the cell components. Surface modification with MPC polymer is a useful technique to modify the surface properties of nanoneedle.     

Development of a method to evaluate caspase-3 activity in a single cell using a nanoneedle and a fluorescent probe

A method to detect an enzymatic reaction in a single living cell using an atomic force microscope equipped with an ultra-thin needle (a nanoneedle) and a fluorescent probe molecule was developed. The nanoneedle enables the low-invasive delivery of molecules attached onto its surface directly into a single cell. We hypothesized that an enzymatic reaction in a cell could be profiled by monitoring a probe immobilized on a nanoneedle introduced into the cell. In this study, a new probe substrate (NHGcas546) for caspase-3 activity based on fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) was constructed and fixed on a nanoneedle. The NHGcas546-modified nanoneedle was inserted into apoptotic cells, in which caspase-3 is activated after apoptosis induction, and a change in the emission spectrum of the immobilized probe could be observed on the surface of the nanoneedle. Thus, we have developed a successful practical method for detecting a biological phenomenon in a single cell. We call the method MOlecular MEter with Nanoneedle Technology (MOMENT).     

ANALYSIS OF LIGAND–RECEPTOR INTERACTIONS IN CELLS BY ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY

ABSTRACT

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) increasingly has been used to analyse “receptor” function, either by using purified proteins (“molecular recognition microscopy”) or, more recently, in situ in living cells. The latter approach has been enabled by the use of a modified commercial AFM, linked to a confocal microscope, which has allowed adhesion forces between ligands and receptors in cells to be measured and mapped, and downstream cellular responses analysed. We review the application of AFM to cell biology and, in particular, to the study of ligand–receptor interactions and draw examples from our own work and that of others to show the utility of AFM, including for the exploration of cell surface functionalities. We also identify shortcomings of AFM in comparison to “standard” methods, such as receptor auto-radiography or immuno-detection, that are widely applied in cell biology and pharmacological analysis.     

Extraction of membrane proteins from a living cell surface using the atomic force microscope and covalent crosslinkers

The force curve mode of the atomic force microscope (AFM) was applied to extract intrinsic membrane proteins from the surface of live cells using AFM tips modified by amino reactive bifunctional covalent crosslinkers. The modified AFM tips were individually brought into brief contact with the living cell surface to form covalent bonds with cell surface molecules. The force curves recorded during the detachment process from the cell surface were often characterized by an extension of a few hundred nanometers followed mostly by a single step jump to the zero force level. Collection and analysis of the final rupture force revealed that the most frequent force values (of the force) were in the range of 0.4–0.6 nN. The observed rupture force most likely represented extraction events of intrinsic membrane proteins from the cell membrane because the rupture force of a covalent crosslinking system was expected to be significantly larger than 1.0 nN, and the separation force of noncovalent ligand-receptor pairs to be less than 0.2 nN, under similar experimental conditions. The transfer of cell surface proteins to the AFM tip was verified by recording characteristic force curves of protein stretching between the AFM tips used on the cell surface and a silicon surface modified with amino reactive bifunctional crosslinkers. This method will be a useful addition to bionanotechnological research for the application of AFM.     

Gene expression using an ultrathin needle enabling accurate displacement and low invasiveness

We have previously demonstrated a new cell manipulation technology by using an atomic force microscope (AFM) and ultrathin needles, named nanoneedles. The nanoneedle is an AFM tip etched by a focused ion beam (FIB) and is sharpened from 200 to 800 nm in diameter. In this study, we have evaluated the proper diameter of a needle required for insertion into human cells over a long period without causing cell death, and achieved highly efficient gene expression method for human cells using a nanoneedle and an AFM.     

Detection of metal binding sites on functional S-layer nanoarrays using single molecule force spectroscopy

Crystalline bacterial cell surface layers (S-layers) show the ability to recrystallize into highly regular pattern on solid supports. In this study, the genetically modified S-layer protein SbpA of Lysinibacillus sphaericus CCM 2177, carrying a hexa-histidine tag (His₆-tag) at the C-terminus, was used to generate functionalized two-dimensional nanoarrays on a silicon surface. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was applied to explore the topography and the functionality of the fused His₆-tags. The accessibility of the His₆-tags was demonstrated by in-situ anti-His-tag antibody binding to the functional S-layer array. The metal binding properties of the His₆-tag was investigated by single molecule force microscopy. For this purpose, newly developed tris–NTA was tethered to the AFM tips via a flexible polyethylene glycol (PEG) linker. The functionalized tips showed specific interactions with S-layer containing His₆-tags in the presence of nickel ions. Thus the His₆-tag is located at the outer surface of the S-layer and can be used for stable but reversible attachment of functional tris–NTA derivatives.     

Utilizing the Antigen Capsid-Incorporation Strategy for the Development of Adenovirus Serotype 5-Vectored Vaccine Approaches

Adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) has been extensively modified with traditional transgene methods for the vaccine development. The reduced efficacies of these traditionally modified Ad5 vectors in clinical trials could be primarily correlated with Ad5 pre-existing immunity (PEI) among the majority of the population. To promote Ad5-vectored vaccine development by solving the concern of Ad5 PEI, the innovative Antigen Capsid-Incorporation strategy has been employed. By merit of this strategy, Ad5-vectored we first constructed the hexon shuttle plasmid HVR1-KWAS-HVR5-His₆/pH5S by subcloning the hypervariable region (HVR) 1 of hexon into a previously constructed shuttle plasmid HVR5-His₆/pH5S, which had His₆ tag incorporated into the HVR5. This HVR1 DNA fragment containing a HIV epitope ELDKWAS was synthesized. HVR1-KWAS-HVR5-His₆/pH5S was then linearized and co-transformed with linearized backbone plasmid pAd5/∆H5 (GL) , for homologous recombination. This recombined plasmid pAd5/H5-HVR1-KWAS-HVR5-His₆ was transfected into cells to generate the viral vector Ad5/H5-HVR1-KWAS-HVR5-His₆. This vector was validated to have qualitative fitness indicated by viral physical titer (VP/ml), infectious titer (IP/ml) and corresponding VP/IP ratio. Both the HIV epitope and His₆ tag were surface-exposed on the Ad5 capsid, and retained epitope-specific antigenicity of their own. A neutralization assay indicated the ability of this divalent vector to circumvent neutralization by Ad5-positive sera in vitro. Mice immunization demonstrated the generation of robust humoral immunity specific to the HIV epitope and His₆. This proof-of-principle study suggested that the protocol associated with the Antigen Capsid-Incorporation strategy could be feasibly utilized for the generation of Ad5-vectored vaccines by modifying different capsid proteins. This protocol could even be further modified for the generation of rare-serotype adenovirus-vectored vaccines.     

Mechanical force-based probing of intracellular proteins from living cells using antibody-immobilized nanoneedles

We developed a method combining atomic force microscopy (AFM) and antibody-immobilized nanoneedles to discriminate living cells by probing intracellular cytoskeletal proteins without the need for cell labeling. The nanoneedles are ultra-thin AFM probes sharpened to 200 nm in diameter. While retracting a nanoneedle inserted into a cell, we measured the mechanical force needed to unbind the antibody-target protein complex. Using this method, the intermediate filament protein, nestin and neurofilament were successfully detected in mouse embryonic carcinoma P19 cells and rat primary hippocampal cells within a minute for a single cell and cell differentiation states could be determined. Additionally, the measured magnitude of the force detecting nestin was indicative of the malignancy of breast cancer cells. This method was shown to affect neither the doubling time of cells nor does it leave extrinsic antibodies within the examined cells, allowing to be used in subsequent analyses in their native state.     

Mapping HA‐tagged protein at the surface of living cells by atomic force microscopy

Single‐molecule force spectroscopy using atomic force microscopy (AFM) is more and more used to detect and map receptors, enzymes, adhesins, or any other molecules at the surface of living cells. To be specific, this technique requires antibodies or ligands covalently attached to the AFM tip that can specifically interact with the protein of interest. Unfortunately, specific antibodies are usually lacking (low affinity and specificity) or are expensive to produce (monoclonal antibodies). An alternative strategy is to tag the protein of interest with a peptide that can be recognized with high specificity and affinity with commercially available antibodies. In this context, we chose to work with the human influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tag (YPYDVPDYA) and labeled two proteins: covalently linked cell wall protein 12 (Ccw12) involved in cell wall remodeling in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the β2‐adrenergic receptor (β2‐AR), a G protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) in higher eukaryotes. We first described the interaction between HA antibodies, immobilized on AFM tips, and HA epitopes, immobilized on epoxy glass slides. Using our system, we then investigated the distribution of Ccw12 proteins over the cell surface of the yeast S. cerevisiae. We were able to find the tagged protein on the surface of mating yeasts, at the tip of the mating projections. Finally, we could unfold multimers of β2‐AR from the membrane of living transfected chinese hamster ovary cells. This result is in agreement with GPCR oligomerization in living cell membranes and opens the door to the study of the influence of GPCR ligands on the oligomerization process. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Formation of nanofilms on cell surfaces to improve the insertion efficiency of a nanoneedle into cells

A nanoneedle, an atomic force microscope (AFM) tip etched to 200 nm in diameter and 10 μm in length, can be inserted into cells with the aid of an AFM and has been used to introduce functional molecules into cells and to analyze intracellular information with minimal cell damage. However, some cell lines have shown low insertion efficiency of the nanoneedle. Improvement in the insertion efficiency of a nanoneedle into such cells is a significant issue for nanoneedle-based cell manipulation and analysis. Here, we have formed nanofilms composed of extracellular matrix molecules on cell surfaces and found that the formation of the nanofilms improved insertion efficiency of a nanoneedle into fibroblast and neural cells. The nanofilms were shown to improve insertion efficiency even in cells in which the formation of actin stress fibers was inhibited by the ROCK inhibitor Y27632, suggesting that the nanofilms with the mesh structure directly contributed to the improved insertion efficiency of a nanoneedle.     

Oligomerization of the SPP1 scaffolding protein

Viral scaffolding proteins direct polymerization of major capsid protein subunits into icosahedral procapsid structures. The scaffolding protein of bacteriophage SPP1 was engineered with a C-terminal hexahistidine tag (gp11-His₆) and purified. The protein is an α-helical-rich molecule with a very elongated shape as found for internal scaffolding proteins from other phages. It is a 3.3 S tetramer of 93.6 kDa at micromolar concentrations. Intersubunit cross-linking of these tetramers generated preferentially covalently bound dimers, revealing that gp11-His₆ is structurally a dimer of dimers. Incubation at temperatures above 37 °C correlated with a reduction of its α-helical content and a less effective intersubunit cross-linking. Complete loss of secondary structure was observed at temperatures above 60 °C. Refolding of gp11-His₆ thermally denatured at 65 °C led to reacquisition of the protein native ellipticity spectrum but the resulting population of molecules was heterogeneous. Its hydrodynamic behavior was compatible with a mix of 3.3 S elongated tetramers (∼ 90%) and a smaller fraction of 2.4 S dimers (∼ 10%). This population of gp11-His₆ was competent to direct polymerization of the SPP1 major capsid protein gp13 into procapsid-like structures in a newly developed assembly assay in vitro. Although native tetramers were active in assembly, refolded gp11-His₆ showed enhanced binding to gp13 revealing a more active species for interaction with the major capsid protein than native gp11-His₆.     

Analysis of ligand-receptor interactions in cells by atomic force microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) increasingly has been used to analyse "receptor" function, either by using purified proteins ("molecular recognition microscopy") or, more recently, in situ in living cells. The latter approach has been enabled by the use of a modified commercial AFM, linked to a confocal microscope, which has allowed adhesion forces between ligands and receptors in cells to be measured and mapped, and downstream cellular responses analysed. We review the application of AFM to cell biology and, in particular, to the study of ligand-receptor interactions and draw examples from our own work and that of others to show the utility of AFM, including for the exploration of cell surface functionalities. We also identify shortcomings of AFM in comparison to "standard" methods, such as receptor auto-radiography or immuno-detection, that are widely applied in cell biology and pharmacological analysis.     

Changes in biooxidation mechanism and transient biofilm characteristics by As(V) during arsenopyrite colonization with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans</Emphasis>

Chemical and surface analyses are carried out using Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM–EDS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), glow discharge spectroscopy (GDS) and extracellular surface protein quantification to thoroughly investigate the effect of supplementary As(V) during biooxidation of arsenopyrite by Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. It is revealed that arsenic can enhance bacterial reactions during bioleaching, which can strongly influence its mobility. Biofilms occur as compact-flattened microcolonies, being progressively covered by a significant amount of secondary compounds (S _n ^2- , S⁰, pyrite-like). Biooxidation mechanism is modified in the presence of supplementary As(V), as indicated by spectroscopic and microscopic studies. GDS confirms significant variations between abiotic control and biooxidized arsenopyrite in terms of surface reactivity and amount of secondary compounds with and without As(V) (i.e. 6 μm depth). CLSM and protein analyses indicate a rapid modification in biofilm from hydrophilic to hydrophobic character (i.e. 1–12 h), in spite of the decrease in extracellular surface proteins in the presence of supplementary As(V) (i.e. stressed biofilms).     

Chemical analysis of a cornstarch film surface modified by SF6 plasma treatment

SF₆ plasmas were employed to improve the water repellency of cornstarch films by producing physical as well as chemical modifications of the film surface. Samples were placed in the cathode of a capacitively coupled plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) reactor. Local surface modifications resulting from SF₆ plasma treatment were evaluated using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman spectroscopy were used to characterize sulfur and fluoride incorporation on the surface as well as changes in the chemical state of carbon. The results indicate that fluoride and sulfur incorporation is dependent on the self bias, and fluoride is preferentially incorporated at self-biases higher than 100 V. The carbon chemical state changed, and an amorphous-like layer was formed upon treatment. Surface reticulation was observed, indicated by the formation of a structure that resembled starch recrystallization. Optimized treatment conditions led to water contact angles over 120°.     

Nano-mechanical mapping of the interactions between surface-bound RC-LH1-PufX core complexes and cytochrome c 2 attached to an AFM probe

Electron transfer pathways in photosynthesis involve interactions between membrane-bound complexes such as reaction centres with an extrinsic partner. In this study, the biological specificity of electron transfer between the reaction centre-light-harvesting 1-PufX complex and its extrinsic electron donor, cytochrome c ₂, formed the basis for mapping the location of surface-attached RC-LH1-PufX complexes using atomic force microscopy (AFM). This nano-mechanical mapping method used an AFM probe functionalised with cyt c ₂ molecules to quantify the interaction forces involved, at the single-molecule level under native conditions. With surface-bound RC-His₁₂-LH1-PufX complexes in the photo-oxidised state, the mean interaction force with cyt c ₂ is approximately 480 pN with an interaction frequency of around 66 %. The latter value lowered 5.5-fold when chemically reduced RC-His₁₂-LH1-PufX complexes are imaged in the dark to abolish electron transfer from cyt c ₂ to the RC. The correspondence between topographic and adhesion images recorded over the same area of the sample shows that affinity-based AFM methods are a useful tool when topology alone is insufficient for spatially locating proteins at the surface of photosynthetic membranes.     

Characterization of a 21 kDa protein from Trypanosoma cruzi associated with mammalian cell invasion

Trypanosoma cruzi genomic database was screened for hypothetical proteins that showed high probability of being secreted or membrane anchored and thus, likely involved in host-cell invasion. A sequence that codes for a 21 kDa protein that showed high probability of being secreted was selected. After cloning this protein sequence, the results showed that it was a ubiquitous protein and secreted by extracellular amastigotes. The recombinant form (P21-His₆) adhered to HeLa cells in a dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment of host cells with P21-His₆ inhibited cell invasion by extracellular amastigotes from G and CL strains. On the other hand, when the protein was added to host cells at the same time as amastigotes, an increase in cell invasion was observed. Host-cell pretreatment with P21-His₆ augmented invasion by metacyclic trypomastigotes. Moreover, polyclonal antibody anti-P21 inhibited invasion only by extracellular amastigotes and metacyclic trypomastigotes from G strain. These results suggested that P21 might be involved in T. cruzi cell invasion. We hypothesize that P21 could be secreted in the juxtaposition parasite-host cell and triggers signaling events yet unknown that lead to parasite internalization.     

Penetration of Cell Membranes and Synthetic Lipid Bilayers by Nanoprobes

Nanoscale devices have been proposed as tools for measuring and controlling intracellular activity by providing electrical and/or chemical access to the cytosol. Unfortunately, nanostructures with diameters of 50–500 nm do not readily penetrate the cell membrane, and rationally optimizing nanoprobes for cell penetration requires real-time characterization methods that are capable of following the process of membrane penetration with nanometer resolution. Although extensive work has examined the rupture of supported synthetic lipid bilayers, little is known about the applicability of these model systems to living cell membranes with complex lipid compositions, cytoskeletal attachment, and membrane proteins. Here, we describe atomic force microscopy (AFM) membrane penetration experiments in two parallel systems: live HEK293 cells and stacks of synthetic lipid bilayers. By using the same probes in both systems, we were able to clearly identify membrane penetration in synthetic bilayers and compare these events with putative membrane penetration events in cells. We examined membrane penetration forces for three tip geometries and 18 chemical modifications of the probe surface, and in all cases the median forces required to penetrate cellular and synthetic lipid bilayers with nanoprobes were greater than 1 nN. The penetration force was sensitive to the probe''s sharpness, but not its surface chemistry, and the force did not depend on cell surface or cytoskeletal properties, with cells and lipid stacks yielding similar forces. This systematic assessment of penetration under various mechanical and chemical conditions provides insights into nanoprobe-cell interactions and informs the design of future intracellular nanoprobes.     

Penetration of Cell Membranes and Synthetic Lipid Bilayers by Nanoprobes

Nanoscale devices have been proposed as tools for measuring and controlling intracellular activity by providing electrical and/or chemical access to the cytosol. Unfortunately, nanostructures with diameters of 50–500 nm do not readily penetrate the cell membrane, and rationally optimizing nanoprobes for cell penetration requires real-time characterization methods that are capable of following the process of membrane penetration with nanometer resolution. Although extensive work has examined the rupture of supported synthetic lipid bilayers, little is known about the applicability of these model systems to living cell membranes with complex lipid compositions, cytoskeletal attachment, and membrane proteins. Here, we describe atomic force microscopy (AFM) membrane penetration experiments in two parallel systems: live HEK293 cells and stacks of synthetic lipid bilayers. By using the same probes in both systems, we were able to clearly identify membrane penetration in synthetic bilayers and compare these events with putative membrane penetration events in cells. We examined membrane penetration forces for three tip geometries and 18 chemical modifications of the probe surface, and in all cases the median forces required to penetrate cellular and synthetic lipid bilayers with nanoprobes were greater than 1 nN. The penetration force was sensitive to the probe's sharpness, but not its surface chemistry, and the force did not depend on cell surface or cytoskeletal properties, with cells and lipid stacks yielding similar forces. This systematic assessment of penetration under various mechanical and chemical conditions provides insights into nanoprobe-cell interactions and informs the design of future intracellular nanoprobes.