Thanatosis in the Brazilian seahorse <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hippocampus reidi</Emphasis> Ginsburg, 1933 (Teleostei: Syngnathidae)

The present study reports thanatosis behavior in Hippocampus reidi seahorses. We observed two different types of tonic immobility during seahorse handling, both in the laboratory and in field studies. In the former, the seahorses assumed a stretched posture, and in the latter, pointed their heads towards their bellies and curled their tails in a spiral towards their abdomen. The displays lasted 124 ± 100 s (n = 3) in the laboratory and 155 ± 7.07 s (n = 5) in the field. Camouflage is the seahorses primary defense from predators and our observations suggest that thanatosis is a secondary strategy that could be more effective than retaliation or escaping predators, due to the fact that seahorses lack teeth and have limited swimming ability. The responses caused by fear occurred after manipulation, allowing for the conclusion that the seahorse H. reidi may use thanatosis as a secondary defense strategy under major stress events.     

Ability of extracellular proteinases of micromycetes <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus flavipes</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus fumigatus</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus sydowii</Emphasis> to affect proteins of the human haemostatic system

The effect of extracellular proteinases of A. flavipes A17, A. fumigatus D1, and A. sydowii 1 on proteins of the human haemostasis system was studied. It was shown that A. fumigatus D1 proteinases are able to hydrolyze a wide range of chromogenic peptide substrates of specific human proteinases of the haemostatic system. Proteinases formed by A. flavipes A17 and A. sydowii 1 have a narrow specificity, mainly to thrombin and plasmin substrates. It was first shown that proteinase of A. flavipes A17 is capable to activate protein C and Factor X. Extracellular proteinase produced by A. sydowii 1 has greater fibrinolytic activity as compared with proteinases produced by A. flavipes A17 and A. fumigatus D1.     

Host Foraging Behavior of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dastarcus helophoroides</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Bothrideridae) Adults,a Coleopteran Parasitoid of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Monochamus alternatus</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Dastarcus helophoroides adults, a coleopteran parasitoid of Monochamus alternatus, were reared in the laboratory. The objectives of this paper are to investigate the host foraging behavior of D. helophoroides, and the evidence for learning in such behaviors. Choice and no-choice experiments were carried out. The choice experiments show that the number of D. helophoroides adults choosing the Pinus massoniana log infested with M. alternatus larvae was significantly higher than that choosing the blank (a flavorless simulative log made of brown kraftpaper), and the number of D. helophoroides adults choosing the uninfested P. massoniana log was also significantly higher than that choosing the blank. The no-choice experiment shows no significant difference between the number of D. helophoroides adults that chose the infested log and that chose the uninfested log, despite previous experience with uninfested log, infested log, or neither of them. No evidence of learning in host foraging behavior in D. helophoroides adults was found. The results indicate that the volatile chemicals emitted by uninfested P. massoniana logs and infested logs with M. alternatus larvae are equally attractive to D. helophoroides.     

Antipredator Behavioral Traits of some <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agriotes</Emphasis> Wireworms (Coleoptera: Elateridae) and their Potential Implications for Species Identification

Many insects show a typical antipredator behavior. The two simplest tactics are immobilization and flight. The antipredator behavior of wireworms, the soil-dwelling polyphagous larvae of click beetles, has not yet been investigated. Birds are known to attack wireworms. Our experimental method (picking up and dropping wireworms) mimics the first attack of a predator, such as a bird. In Europe, some Agriotes species are of particular importance as crop pests. As these species differ considerably, in ecology, damage threshold, and pathogen resistance, knowing more about the species specific biology and behavior will support the establishment of successful control measures. In an extensive microcosm study, we observed the antipredator behavior of wireworms belonging to four different Agriotes species (A. lineatus, A. obscurus, A. sordidus, and A. ustulatus) before and during digging into the soil after a startle-stimulus. We recorded wireworm immobility frequency and duration, and locomotor activity at three temperatures. We also analyzed genetic and morphologic attributes of A. lineatus larvae from two different origins. Following behavior types were found reflecting different escape tactics: (a) distinct tonic immobility (A. lineatus), (b) brief/inconsistent tonic immobility (A. obscurus, A. sordidus), and (c) immediate fleeing/burying (A. ustulatus). Additionally, we found small but significant differences in morphology, behavior, and genetics (PCR results) between A. lineatus larvae originating from the Netherlands and those originating from Germany. The biological information we gathered about each species will further increase the understanding of these insects and improve interpretation of future experimental data. In addition, the described behavioral differences between Agriotes obscurus and A. lineatus wireworms may represent a useful additional criterion in morphological species identification.     

Effect of excretory-secretory products of some fouling organisms on settling and metamorphosis of the larvae of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Styela rustica</Emphasis> (Ascidiae)

The effect of the excretory-secretory products of some fouling animals on the settling and metamorphosis of larvae of the solitary ascidian Styela rustica was assessed. The substances secreted by the sponge Halichondria panicea stimulated settling of larvae, but concurrently blocked their metamorphosis. The excretory-secretory products of the mussel Mytilus edulis and the ascidian Molgula citrine did not affect settling of the S. rustica larvae but impeded their subsequent development. Water conditioned by the bivalve Hiatella arctica, stimulated settling and, apparently, metamorphosis of the larvae of S. rustica. The chemical substances produced by adult individuals of S. rustica facilitated settling of conspecific larvae but slightly delayed their metamorphosis.     

Attraction of the Larval Parasitoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spintherus dubius</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) to Feces Volatiles from the Adult <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apion</Emphasis> Weevil Host

The behavioral response of the larval parasitoid Spintherus dubius (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) to volatile compounds derived from its Apion weevil hosts was investigated in two-choice bioassays. Odor source candidates were the larval and adult stages of weevils, clover flowers, and feces from adult weevils. Despite S. dubius being a larval parasitoid, the odor of weevil larvae isolated from the clover flowers was not attractive to female parasitoids. Surprisingly, S. dubius females were instead attracted by the odor from the feces of adult weevils. The female parasitoids were similarly attracted to the feces produced by the two main hosts, the red clover weevil (A. trifolii) and the white clover weevil (A. fulvipes). Chemical analysis of the volatile composition of feces produced by the two hosts revealed qualitatively similar odor profiles, correlating with the observed attraction by the parasitoid towards both odor sources. Some of the identified volatile compounds are commonly present in clover plant headspace fractions and may function as a kairomone to facilitate orientation by S. dubius to Apion-infested clover flowers. Larval and adult weevils were not attractive for parasitoid females, whereas, for the white clover weevil-plant association, infested flowers were highly attractive. These data show the use by the clover weevil parasitoid of an alternative source of olfactory information for locating its host.     

Features of the structure of hymenoptera associated with miniaturization: 1. Anatomy of the fairyfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anaphes flavipes</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera,Mymaridae)

Anatomy of the adult fairyfly Anaphes flavipes (Hymenoptera, Mymaridae) is described in detail for the first time, based on series of sections and 3D computer reconstruction. Despite its tiny size, A. flavipes does not demonstrate strong morphological simplification, except for the merging of certain skeletal elements, a slight simplification of endoskeleton, lack of midgut muscles, a reduced number of Malpighian tubules, simplification of the tracheal and circulatory systems, asymmetry of the central nervous system, and the absence of several muscles.     

Seasonal Abundance and Predatory Potential of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stethorus aptus</Emphasis> Kapur (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae): A Biocontrol Agent of Tea Red Spider Mite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oligonychus coffeae</Emphasis> Nietner (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

The tea red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae Nietner is one of the major pests of tea plants in North-east India. The ladybird beetle, Stethorus aptus Kapur, is a newly reported predator of O. coffeae. Predatory efficiency study of S. aptus under laboratory conditions revealed that adult of S. aptus consumed significantly more mites than larvae. In free choice condition, the predator consumed within a range of 48–56 adults and 82–90 larvae of O. coffeae whereas the 3rd and 4th instar larvae of S. aptus consumed 20–26 adults and 50–60 larvae of O. coffeae per day respectively. Population dynamics of S. aptus was observed for 1 year under field conditions. The maximum density of the predator was recorded during January to March and it gradually declined from September onwards. Population of S. aptus showed positive correlation with its prey O. coffeae and relative humidity while effect of other factors was insignificant.     

Aphids Playing Possum – Defensive or Mutualistic Response?

Paper presents the phenomenon of thanatosis or death-feigning in selected aphids species. This specific reaction was predominantly analysed on the example of aphid subfamily Lachninae. Individuals of this group were used in experiments, during which a thanatotic response was induced with various results. The response differed from prolonged thanatosis, lasting for several minutes (Eulachnus rileyi), through shrinking behaviour (e. g. in Stomaphis graffii) to non-responsive species such as Cinara (Schizolachnus) pineti. The large interspecies variation of observed responses can be linked to other defensive mechanisms existing in the studied species, as well as to their mutualistic relationship with ants. The behaviour of shrinking is hypothesized to be the mutualistic response, developed from thanatosis, and being adapted to transportation by ant workers.     

Larvae of the exotic predatory ladybird <Emphasis Type="Italic">Platynaspidius maculosus</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on citrus trees: prey aphid species and behavioral interactions with aphid-attending ants in Japan

An aphidophagous ladybird, Platynaspidius maculosus (Weise) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), is originally distributed in China, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The ladybird has recently intruded into the southern and central parts of Japan. The present study found that the larvae of this ladybird preyed on three aphid species, Aphis spiraecola, Aphis gossypii, and Toxoptera citricidus (all Hemiptera: Aphididae), feeding on young shoots of various Citrus species in August to early October in Shizuoka Prefecture, central Japan. Laboratory rearing of the sampled larvae confirmed that the larvae completed their development (adult emergence) by consuming each of the three aphid species. The ladybird larvae were observed foraging in aphid colonies attended by one of the four ants, Lasius japonicus, Pristomyrmex punctatus, Formica japonica, and Camponotus japonicus (all Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Field observations revealed that the foraging/feeding larvae were almost completely ignored by honeydew-collecting ants even when they physically contacted each other. Thus, in Japan, the larvae of the exotic ladybird exploit colonies of the three aphid species attended by one of the four ant species on many Citrus species. On the basis of the results, I discuss the possibility of the ladybird’s reproduction on citrus trees in Japan, probable adaptations of the ladybird larvae to aphid-attending ants, and potential impacts of the ladybird on native insect enemies attacking ant-attended aphids on citrus.     

The Predation Strategy of the Recluse Spider <Emphasis Type="Italic">Loxosceles rufipes</Emphasis> (Lucas, 1834) against four Prey Species

Generalist predators have to deal with prey with sometimes very different morphologies and defensive behaviors. Therefore, such predators are expected to express plasticity in their predation strategy. Here we investigated the predatory behavior of the recluse spider Loxosceles rufipes (Araneae, Sicariidae) when attacking prey with different morphologies and defensive mechanisms. We expected L. rufipes to show different prey capture strategies and variable acceptance towards each prey type. Potential prey species were collected directly from the web or in the surroundings of the web-building site of L. rufipes. We collected and used the following in our experiments: termite workers (Nasutitermes sp.), lepidopteran larvae (Eurema salome), ants (Camponotus sp.) and isopods (Tylidae). We paired these prey with L. rufipes and recorded their behavior in captivity, quantifying acceptance rate, immobilization time and the sequence of behaviors by the predator. The acceptance rate was lower for isopods but not different among other prey. The immobilization time was higher for isopods than for termites and similar for the other pairwise comparisons. The behavioral sequence was similar for all prey except for isopods, which were also bit more often. Our combined results show plasticity in the behavior of L. rufipes and also show it subdues a potentially dangerous prey (ant) and an armored prey (isopod).     

Host suitability of the Mediterranean flour moth for rearing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Meteorus pulchricornis</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a polyphagous endoparasitoid of pest lepidopteran larvae

We investigated the host suitability of the Mediterranean flour moth Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) for a polyphagous koinobiont endoparasitoid Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a common natural enemy of various pest lepidopteran larvae. The estimated probability of adult wasp emergence was 80% or higher when eggs were laid in nearly fully grown larvae of E. kuehniella (fresh weight, >?20.0 mg). The body size of emerged adult wasps increased with the initial weight of the host larvae at oviposition. The fresh weight of adult wasps reared on E. kuehniella was approximately 60% of that when reared on a natural host Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and the lifetime fecundity of wasps reared on E. kuehniella was approximately half of that when reared on S. litura. Ephestia kuehniella was shown to be a positive host candidate for the mass rearing of M. pulchricornis, but further investigation is needed to increase the body size of wasps for more practical use of this species as a biocontrol agent.     

The Larvae of Three Species of Jewel Beetles of the Subgenus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysoblemma</Emphasis> Jakovlev, 1889, Genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sphenoptera</Emphasis> Dejean, 1833 (Coleoptera,Buprestidae), from Turkmenistan

The larvae of three species of jewel beetles of the subgenus Chrysoblemma Jakovlev of the genus Sphenoptera Dejean are described: Sphenoptera (Ch.) tamarisci beckeri Dohrn reared from Horaninovia ulicina Fisch. et Mey., Atriplex tatarica L. and Salsola arbuscula Pall.; Sphenoptera (Ch.) tomentosa Jakovlev from Salsola arbuscula; Sphenoptera (Ch.) amplicollis Jakovlev from Salsola orientalis S.G. Gmel. and Halothamnus glaucus (Bieb.) Botsch. Differential diagnoses to distinguish them from the previously described sphenopterine larvae are given.     

Evaluation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nastus fausti</Emphasis> Reitter (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Entiminae: Nastini) for biological control of invasive giant hogweeds (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Heracleum</Emphasis> spp.)

The weevil Nastus fausti Reitter (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) was evaluated for its potential in the biological control of invasive giant hogweeds (Heracleum spp.). Quantitative sampling suggested that at a high population density (more that 3–4 mature larvae per plant) damage by N. fausti larvae could have some negative impact on the above-ground part of the plant. However, no-choice laboratory tests showed that N. fausti females were able to feed on a number of Apiaceae genera, including such important cultivated crops as carrot, parsnip, and celeriac. Feeding on these plants did not cause any significant decrease in female survival or fecundity. Moreover, at least part of N. fausti larvae may feed and develop on roots of these plants, and the rate of their growth and development does not differ significantly from that in larvae fed on roots of H. mantegazzianum. N. fausti adult and larval feeding on Angelica purpurascens, representative of related genus of the same tribe, was recorded under natural conditions, too. In combination, these data suggest that N. fausti is an oligophagous species connected with plants from at least several genera of Apiaceae and thus it cannot be considered a potential agent for biological control of invasive Heracleum species.     

The ontogeny of the oribatid mite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nanhermannia coronata</Emphasis> (Acari,Oribatida, Nanhermanniidae)

The ontogeny of the oribatid mite Nanhermannia coronata (Oribatida, Nanhermanniidae) was studied in the laboratory. At a temperature of 22–23°C and air humidity 100%, the entire life cycle from egg to adult lasted for 105–124 days. N. coronata juveniles and females are described. The diagnostic characters of the chaetom of N. coronata and N. nana larvae and nymphs are given. Morphological differences between N. coronata and N. nana allow distinguishing these species at all active stages.     

The species composition and ecological features of pea crabs of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinnixa</Emphasis> White, 1846 (Brachyura: Pinnotheridae) in Peter the Great Bay,the Sea of Japan

This paper provides an overview of pea crabs of the genus Pinnixa White, 1846 (Brachyura: Pinnotheridae) that occur along the Russian coast of the Sea of Japan. Three species of the genus have been recorded for this area: P. tumida Stimpson, 1858, P. rathbuni Sakai, 1934, as well as P. banzu Komai, Nishi & Taru, 2014, which is the first record for the fauna of Russia. All species clearly differ ecologically: P. tumida was found in Posyet Bay in the intestine of the burrowing holothurian Paracaudina chilensis (Müller, 1850); P. rathbuni, in burrows of the echiuroid Urechis unicinctus (von Drasche, 1881); and P. banzu, in tubes of the polychaete Chaetopterus cautus Marenzeller, 1879. The paper also provides a definitive key to Pinnixa species and data on the size, behavior, symbionts, and parasites of P. rathbuni and P. banzu.     

Non-target effects of grass-specific herbicides differ among species,chemicals and host plants in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Euphydryas</Emphasis> butterflies

Habitat modification by invasive species places numerous butterfly species at risk of extinction. Grass-specific herbicides, graminicides, are a sought-after tool to reduce invasive grasses, augment forbs and enhance butterfly populations. However, possible non-target effects raise concern. We investigated non-target effects of graminicides on three species of caterpillars in the genus Euphydryas (Nymphalidae), a taxon with numerous species in decline worldwide. In one experiment, we compared the effects of three graminicides (clethodim, sethoxydim and fluazifop-p-butyl) on E. colon. In a second experiment, we assessed the effects of fluazifop-p-butyl, the most commonly used graminicide in prairies in the Northwest USA, on three Euphydryas species (E. colon, E. editha and E. phaeton), each raised on two different hostplants. In the first experiment, fluazifop-p-butyl did not affect survivorship of pre-diapause larvae, sethoxydim reduced survivorship by 20?% relative to controls, and effects of clethodim were inconclusive. Graminicides did not change the total concentration of iridoid glycosides in the caterpillars, but all three graminicides increased the concentration of aucubin to almost double the level in control treatments. In the second experiment, the effects of fluazifop-b-butyl were not consistent across butterfly and host plant species. However, fluazifop-b-butyl reduced group size of gregarious pre-diapause larvae under all conditions. Our results suggest that if managers use graminicides over the short-term to control invasive grasses, fluazifop-p-butyl has the most promise for minimal effects. However, efforts should be paired with demographic and behavioral monitoring to quantify context-dependent impacts.     

Functional Response and Matrix Population Model of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Podisus nigrispinus</Emphasis> (Dallas, 1851) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) fed on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysomya putoria</Emphasis> (Wiedemann, 1818) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) as Alternative Prey

Among the predators with high potential for use in biological control, the species of the genus Podisus (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) have received special attention for laboratory rearing, since they feed on different agricultural and forestry pest insects. However, the type of diet offered to insects in the laboratory may affect the viability of populations, expressed essentially by demographic parameters such as survival and fecundity. This study assessed demographic and development aspects in experimental populations of Podisus nigrispinus (Dallas, 1851) fed on larvae of Chrysomya putoria (Wiedemann, 1818) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) as an alternative prey. The demographic parameters fecundity and survival were investigated in life stages of P. nigrispinus with ecological modeling, by applying the Leslie matrix population model, producing histograms of life stages in successive time steps. The functional response of P. nigrispinus was also investigated on seven densities of C. putoria third-instar larvae at 24 and 48 h. The survival of predators that reached adulthood was 65% and the development time from egg to adult was 23.15 days. The predator showed a type III functional response for consumption of C. putoria at 24 and 48 h. The Leslie-matrix simulation of the age structure provided perpetuation of the predator population over time steps and the prey proved to be feasible for use in rearing and maintenance of P. nigrispinus in the laboratory.