Chorioptic Mange (Acarina: Psoroptidae) in Domestic and Wild Ruminants in Israel

In a 20-year-survey, 9364 dairy cattle in 324 herds kept under a zero-grazing management, 1252 beef cattle in 46 herds grazing all the year round, 3347 sheep in 134 herds (only 26 are grazing herds), and 872 goats in 47 herds (only 20 are grazing) were examined. The mites collected from cattle were identified as Chorioptes texanus only, and those from sheep, goats and gazelles were identified as C. bovis. Chorioptic mange was not diagnozed in grazing beef cattle, ibexes and housed animals (as compared to grazing herds), and in rams and billy goats. Holstein-Israeli bulls kept in insemination centres were not clinically infested, whereas four Charolais bulls were infested with chorioptic mange. Infestation rate was higher in older animals than in younger ones. Hoggets and young goats over 10 months and heifers over 13 months were found clinically infested with Choriopic mites. Lesions were not usually extensive and occurred mainly in predilection sites. The ocular form in sheep and the groin form in goats are very uncommon and apparently are reported for the first time. Chorioptic mange was recorded generally throughout the year. In our study seasonal distribution could not be demonstrated in cattle, while in sheep and goats the highest infestation rate occurred in February to March and the lowest in August and September.     

Evaluation of an indigenous ELISA for diagnosis of Johne’s disease and its comparison with commercial kits

Country lacks sensitive and indigenous diagnostic kits for the screening of goats and sheep against Johne’s disease. Therefore an indigenous ELISA kit was developed using protoplasmic antigen from native Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis ‘Bison Type’ strain of goat origin (Kit 1). In the present study, kit 1 and two commercial kits (kit 2 and 3) were evaluated with respect to ‘Gold Standard’ fecal culture in 71 animals (55 goats and 16 sheep). Kit 1 using indigenous antigen (protoplasmic antigen) was sensitive at very low concentration (0.1 μgm / well) as compared to purified commercial protoplasmic antigen (4 μgm / well) used in kit 2, in the Type 1 reactors (strong positive as positive). Screening of 71 animals by fecal culture detected 38.0% animals (goats-40.0%, sheep-31.2%) as positive (clinical shedders of bacilli) from these farm animals. Of the farm animals located at Central Institute for Research on Goats, herds of goat were endemic whereas, sheep flocks were comparatively resistant to Johne’s disease. The 29.5 and 61.9, 15.4 and 57.7 and 4.2 and 14.0% animals (goats and sheep) were in the category of sero-reactors type 1 and 2 of the ELISA kits 1, 2 and 3, respectively. In the type 1 sero-reactors, sensitivity and specificity of kit 1, 2 and 3 was 53.7 and 86.0, 17.8 and 86.0 and 3.5 and 94.7%, respectively. Indigenous ELISA test (kit 1) was significantly superior for the screening of goatherds and sheep flocks against JD as compared to commercial ELISA kits (Kit 2 and 3). In comparison to kit 2 and 3, kit 1 had highest sensitivity, comparable specificity and substantial to nearly perfect proportional agreement (Kappa Scores) with respect to ‘Gold standard’ fecal culture in goats and sheep. Disease being endemic in herds and flocks screened using ELISA kits, Type I sero-rectors had better correlation with fecal culture in comparison to Type II sero-reactors therefore, used for estimation of sero-prevalence. Newly developed Indigenous ELISA kit was simple, inexpensive, sensitive and reliable for screening of goats and sheep population against Johne’s disease. The study reports high prevalence of Johne’s disease in farm goatherds and sheep flocks, using sensitive tests (fecal culture and ELISA kit). Results of Type 1 reaction in kit 1 were optimally correlated with culture and were good for estimating the sero-prevalence. For controlling Johne’s disease in endemic herds initial removal of the animals in strong positive category (Tyep 1 reactors), may help to remove heavy shedders.     

The establishment and reversibility of species affinities in domestic sheep and goats

The establishment and reversibility of cross-species attachments were studied in sheep and goats taken from their mothers at birth and reared in same- or cross-species pairs until 12 months of age. Species affinities were determined at eight to nine months of age by time spent proximate to stimulus herds of sheep and goats housed in separate enclosures within a larger pasture. Sheep reared with goats spent significantly more time with the stimulus goats than did controls (sheep reared with sheep). Likewise, goats reared with sheep spent a significantly greater percentage of time with the stimulus sheep than did control goats. At approximately 13 months of age the sheep were segregated from the goats in separate pastures and were retested, as before, for species affinities after 34 to 90 days of exposure to conspecifics. Experimental subjects demonstrated a significant reversal of species preferences. However, the reversal was more complete for subjects housed for 57 to 90 days in same-species groups than for those tested after 34 to 56 days of exposure to conspecifics. It was concluded that species affinities of sheep and goats are basically learned and that relatively long-standing cross-species social attachments can be reversed by approximately 60 to 90 days of same-species cohabitation.     

Visna Virus Meningoencephalomyelitis in Goats

A progressive paresis was encountered in herds of Swedish goats. The symptoms developed during a period of weeks or months, and were initially often seen as a weakness of the hind limbs before the animals became paralytic. The development and the histopathological lesions of the disease in the GNS and the lungs were similar to those of visna in sheep. In vitro grown choroid plexus cells, prepared from affected goats, showed foci of polykaryocytes. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of particles morphologically similar to those of sheep visna virus (SVV). Goats experimentally infected with the goat visna virus (GVV) developed GNS lesions similar to those of visna in sheep and became seropositive to SVV. The results of complement fixation tests, carried out on sera from 11 goat herds, showed a coincidence between seropositiveness and the occurrence of disease in one and the same herd. Using the ELISA method, an average of 80 % of the goats in 5 herds were found to be seropositive to GVV.     

Seroepidemiological study of Q fever in domestic ruminants in semi-extensive grazing systems

Background  

Q fever, a worldwide zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii, is endemic in northern Spain where it has been reported as responsible for large series of human pneumonia cases and domestic ruminants' reproductive disorders. To investigate pathogen exposure among domestic ruminants in semi-extensive grazing systems in northern Spain, a serosurvey was carried out in 1,379 sheep (42 flocks), 626 beef cattle (46 herds) and 115 goats (11 herds). Serum antibodies were analysed by ELISA and positive samples were retested by Complement Fixation test (CFT) to detect recent infections.     

Detection of Leptospira spp. in semen and vaginal fluids of goats and sheep by polymerase chain reaction

Thirteen goat herds and seven sheep flocks in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil were screened for leptospirosis. From the three herds and three flocks with greatest seroreactivity, 19 goats (16 females and three bucks) and 40 sheep (26 ewes and 14 rams) that were seropositive (specific anti-Leptospira titres > or =400, based on a microscopic agglutination test), were selected for more detailed studies. From those animals, samples of vaginal fluids or semen were collected for bacteriological and molecular assays. For both species of animals, the most prevalent reactions were to serovars Hardjo, Shermani, and Grippotyphosa. Although leptospires were detected by darkfield microscopy in three vaginal fluid samples (from two goats and one ewe), pure isolates were not obtained by bacteriological culture of vaginal fluids or semen. However, seven vaginal fluid samples (from four goats and three ewes) and six semen samples (all from rams) were positive on polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Based on these findings, in addition to analogous findings in cattle, we inferred that there is potential for venereal transmission of leptospirosis in small ruminants.     

The feral goats of Kielderhead Moor

Herds of feral goats are present along the high ground of the Scottish Borders at the College, Hindhope, Kielderhead Moor (the study area), Bewcastle Fell and Roan Fell.
In the study area the nannies remained solitary, or in the company of their yearlings on the steep ground below the high moor throughout the winter. After the birth of their kids in March two female herds were formed each with a herd billy which came from the two male herds which were present through the winter on the high moor. The male herds left the study area in the spring and their ranges are not known. The two female herds maintained separate ranges on the high moor until the end of August when they combined into one large herd and were joined by a strange herd of billies which had not previously been seen.
After the first three or four days of its life the kid is left in a hiding place for most of the day whilst its mother ranges widely grazing with the herd. The kids join the herd when they are about six weeks old.
The Kielderhead Moor goats had a recruitment rate of 0–29/nanny/year and the females have a further expectation of life of 3–7 years. Figures for the billies are unreliable as disappearances of males from the moor are more likely to be the result of emigration than of deaths. While the herds of nannies have fairly restricted home ranges there is some evidence to suggest that many of the billies wander freely along the Borders.
In the early part of the summer the sheep and goats are eating very similar proportions of the plants present on the moor. Later on in the season there is a divergence with the sheep eating less Calluna while the goats eat less Eriophorum , but as the Trichophorum becomes available both animals include this in their diet.     

Arthropod fauna on grassland–heathland associations under different grazing managements with domestic ruminants

The effects of two grazer species (cattle or sheep) and two flock types (single or mixed with goats) on vegetation and arthropod fauna were studied in a factorial design on eight plots which comprised two thirds of mechanically cleared heathland and one third of improved ryegrass-clover grassland. After six grazing seasons, the shrubland areas were dominated by gorse (Ulex gallii) in all treatments. Herbaceous cover was higher under mixed than under single grazing, and under sheep than under cattle grazing. Higher captures of Opiliones, Julida, Lithobiomorpha, Microcoryphia and Carabidae were recorded in shrublands than in grasslands, while the reverse was observed for Linyphiidae, Lycosidae and Hemiptera. Within shrublands, fauna responded to the flock type but not to the grazer species. More arthropod groups favoured the patchier areas with higher herbaceous biomass generated by mixed herds with goats. Within grasslands, species-specific responses to the grazer species were observed. Mixed grazing schemes which include goats within partially improved heathlands could contribute to maintain higher biodiversity levels in these marginal areas.     

Genetic Diversity and Divergence among Bighorn Sheep from Reintroduced Herds in Washington and Idaho

Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) populations in the western United States have undergone widespread declines and extirpations since the late nineteenth century as a consequence of introduced diseases, competition with livestock, and unregulated hunting. Washington, Idaho, USA, and British Columbia, Canada were historically thought to be occupied by 2 bighorn lineages or subspecies: Rocky Mountain (O. c. canadensis) and California (O. c. californiana). The putative California lineage was completely extirpated in the United States, and reintroductions to reestablish populations were sourced directly or indirectly from a single region in southern British Columbia. Restoration efforts have attempted to maintain the diversity and divergence of these 2 lineages, sometimes referred to as subspecies although taxonomic classifications have changed over time. In this study we describe genetic variation in a subset of native and reintroduced herds of California and Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. We examined genetic diversity and divergence between bighorn sheep herds using 15 microsatellite loci, including 4 loci linked to genes involved in immune function. We analyzed 504 samples from reintroduced herds in Washington (n = 10 California herds, n = 4 Rocky Mountain herds) and Idaho (n = 5 California), and source herds in Oregon (n = 1 Rocky Mountain) and British Columbia (n = 5 California, 1 Rocky Mountain). Genetic structure reflected known reintroduction history, and geographic proximity also was associated with decreased genetic divergence. Herds in Washington and Idaho sourced from California bighorn sheep were less genetically diverse than those sourced from Rocky Mountain herds. Also, levels of relatedness within and across California herds were higher than in Rocky Mountain herds and similar to what would be expected for full and half siblings. Lower diversity and higher relatedness among California herds is a concern for long-term fitness and likely related to past population bottlenecks, fewer source populations, and management history, such as entirely sourcing California herds from British Columbia. Genetic divergence of neutral loci between California and Rocky Mountain herds was greater than that of adaptive loci, potentially indicating that balancing selection has maintained similar genetic diversity across lineages in loci associated with immune and other adaptive functions. Thus, we recommend future reintroductions and augmentations should continue to use source populations from the appropriate California or Rocky Mountain lineage to avoid potential outbreeding depression and maintain possible adaptive differences. This could be accomplished by obtaining sheep from ≥1 source within the genetic lineage, while avoiding sourcing from admixed herds. Future work encompassing a broader geographic sampling of populations and a greater portion of the genome is necessary to better evaluate the degree to which contemporary divergence between lineages is associated with recent founder effects and genetic isolation or evolutionary adaptation. © 2021 The Wildlife Society     

Distribution of keratinophilic fungi in animal folds in Kuwait

Soil samples from seventeen animal herds (camels, goats, sheep, cows) were surveyed for the occurrence of keratinophilic fungi. Twenty four species related to eleven genera were recovered on defated wool baits. Eleven Chrysosporium species were reported in the following order of dominance: C. keratinophilum, C. tropicum, C. indicum, C. queenslandicum, C. pannicola, C. carmichaelii, C. state of Arthroderma curreyi, C. zonatum, C. state of A. cuniculi and Chrysosporium state of Renispora flavissima. The Aphanoascus teleomorph of C. keratinophilum, C. indicum and C. tropicum were frequently reported in soils from cow and sheep folds. Scopulariopsis, Cephaliophora and Sepedonium, although not keratinolytic, were also recorded on wool baits of soils from cow herds which are slightly acidic. The frequency and distribution of these fungi are discussed in relation to animal species and the general ecological conditions of desert soils.     

Estimation of the Use of Antibiotics in the Small Ruminant Industry in the Netherlands in 2011 and 2012

The aim of this study was to estimate the quantity of antibiotics and classes of antibiotics used in the small ruminant industry in the Netherlands in 2011 and 2012. Twelve large veterinary practices, located throughout the Netherlands were selected for this study. All small ruminant farms associated with these practices that had complete records on the quantity of antibiotics prescribed were included. The veterinary practices provided data on all antibiotics prescribed, and the estimated animal used daily dose of antibiotics per year (AUDD/Y) was calculated for each farm. The median AUDD/Y in small ruminant farms was zero in both years (mean 0.60 in 2011, and 0.62 in 2012). The largest quantity of antibiotic use was observed in the professional goat industry (herds of ≥32 goats) with a median AUDD/Y of 1.22 in 2011 and 0.73 in 2012. In the professional sheep industry (flocks of ≥32 sheep), the median AUDD/Y was 0 in 2011 and 0.10 in 2012. In the small scale industry (flocks or herds of <32 sheep or goats), the median AUDD/Y never exceeded 0. The most frequently prescribed antibiotics in the small scale industry and professional sheep farms belonged to the penicillin class. In professional goat farms, antibiotics of the aminoglycoside class were most frequently prescribed. This study provides the first assessment on the quantity of antibiotic use in the small ruminant industry. Given a comparable attitude towards antibiotic use, these results might be valid for small ruminant populations in other north-western European countries as well. The antibiotic use in the small ruminant industry appeared to be low, and is expected to play a minor role in the development of antibiotic resistance. Nevertheless, several major zoonotic bacterial pathogens are associated with the small ruminant industry, and it remains important that antibiotics are used in a prudent way.     

Genome-wide cross-amplification of domestic sheep microsatellites in bighorn sheep and mountain goats

We tested for cross‐species amplification of microsatellite loci located throughout the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) genome in two north American mountain ungulates (bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis, and mountain goats, Oreamnos americanus). We identified 247 new polymorphic markers in bighorn sheep (≥ 3 alleles in one of two study populations) and 149 in mountain goats (≥ 2 alleles in a single study population) using 648 and 576 primer pairs, respectively. Our efforts increased the number of available polymorphic microsatellite markers to 327 for bighorn sheep and 180 for mountain goats. The average distance between successive polymorphic bighorn sheep and mountain goat markers inferred from the Australian domestic sheep genome linkage map (mean ± 1 SD) was 11.9 ± 9.2 and 15.8 ± 13.8 centimorgans, respectively. The development of genomic resources in these wildlife species enables future studies of the genetic architecture of trait variation.     

Direct evidence for natural transmission of small-ruminant lentiviruses of subtype A4 from goats to sheep and vice versa

Small-ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV), which include the caprine arthritis-encephalitis and the maedi-visna virus, cause persistent inflammatory infections in goats and sheep. SRLV are mainly transmitted from mother to offspring through milk. Transmission after prolonged contact between adult animals has also been observed. The observation that certain SRLV subtypes are found in both goats and sheep suggests that interspecies transmission has occurred on several occasions in the past. We investigated seropositive goats and sheep that were kept together in small mixed herds. Phylogenetic analysis of long proviral sequences in gag and pol, combined with epidemiologic information, demonstrated natural sheep-to-goat transmission of the recently identified SRLV subtype A4 in two instances and goat-to-sheep transmission of the same subtype in one instance. In a further mixed cluster, the direction of the interspecies transmission could not be determined. These findings present for the first time direct evidence that natural interspecies transmission of SRLV is ongoing in both directions. The findings are of relevance to virus eradication programs in both species.     

Reproductive Failure in Goats in Norway: An Investigation in 24 Herds

Twenty-four flocks comprising 2370 breeding goats were examined. Threehundred-and-sixty-nine (15.6 %) of the goats either aborted or delivered dead kids at full term, or were barren. In 23 of the herds the rate of reproductive loss ranged from 2 % to 36 %, whereas in one herd all of 54 mated goats had live kids. A loss of ≥ 20 % was found in 9 herds comprising 799 goats. In 11 herds comprising 946 goats the rate of reproductive failure was ≤ 10 %. The incidence of reproductive failure was higher in older goats than in those in their first or second pregnancy. The causes were identified in only about 3 % of the goats that aborted. It is concluded that reproductive failure in many flocks probably is associated with non-infectious causes such as nutritional and environmental factors.     

Diet overlap between small ruminants and the European hare in a Mediterranean shrubland

Seasonal diets of goats, sheep and European hares (Lepus europaeus) were examined using microhistological analysis of feces collected when these herbivores grazed together in a typical Mediterranean shrubland. Approximately half of the total diet content of goats was shrubs (mainly kermes oak, Quercus coccifera), while that of hares was grasses (mostly brush grass, Chrysopogon gryllus). Sheep had a more balanced diet consisting mainly of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Dietary overlap between goats and sheep was high throughout the year. In contrast, there was very low dietary overlap between small ruminants and hares. Dietary diversity was high in spring and low in winter across all species, with sheep in general displaying higher dietary diversity across all seasons than goats and hares. Goats had intermediate and hares had low dietary diversity across all seasons. Communal grazing by small ruminants and hares ensures that there is a more uniform use of the available forage resources than if a single herbivore is left to graze an area.     

Wolf depredation on livestock in central Greece

We studied wolfCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 — livestock conflict in central Greece by investigating patterns of 267 verified wolf attacks on livestock for 21 months. Wolves attacked adult goats 43% and cattle 218% more than expected, whereas sheep 41% less than expected from their availability. Wolves killed less than four sheep or goats in 79%, and one cow or calf in 74% of depredation events, respectively. We recorded higher attack rates during wolf post-weaning season. Wolf attacks on strayed, or kept inside non predator-proof enclosures, sheep and goats, were on average two to four times respectively more destructive than those when livestock was guarded by a shepherd. Sheepdog use reduced losses per attack. Optimal sheepdog number ranged from 3 to 9 animals depending on flock size. Losses per attack were positively related to the number of wolves involved. Total losses per farm were positively correlated with the size of livestock unit but percentage losses per capita increased with decreasing flock size. Management implications to mitigate livestock depredation are discussed.     

Relationships among somatic cell count, California mastitis test, impedance and bacteriological status of milk in goats and sheep in early lactation

The objectives of this trial were to evaluate and compare the test characteristics of a number of indirect tests of bacteriological status of the milk from goats and sheep and to assess the affect of varying levels of prevalence of infection on the performance of those tests.The somatic cell count, California mastitis test (CMT) score, electrical impedance and the bacteriological status of 220 and 262 milk samples from the glands of lactating dairy goats and sheep, respectively, were determined. The sensitivity and specificity of indirect tests in predicting the bacteriological status were compared by analyzing the areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve and calculating the likelihood ratio at various cut-off values.Bacteria were isolated from 17.7 and 4.6% of glands from goats and sheep, respectively. Somatic cell count was a better predictor of bacteriological status than either the CMT score or impedance in both goats and sheep. However, knowledge of the CMT score in both sheep and goats and the impedance in goats increases the likelihood of predicting the presence of a bacterial pathogen compared to no testing at all (P<0.05). Knowledge of the age and days postpartum of the animals at the time of testing did not increase the probability that infection status could be predicted. Variation in cut-off levels to predict infection status reported in the literature may be due to variation in the prevalence of infection in the populations studied. Use of likelihood ratio allows comparison of tests over a range of prevalence’s as likelihood ratios are independent of prevalence. The prevalence of infection within a herd should be considered when selecting a cut-off value for indirect testing for the presence of bacteria in milk of small ruminants.     

A panel of recombinant proteins for the serodiagnosis of caseous lymphadenitis in goats and sheep

Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is a small ruminant disease characterized by the development of granulomatous lesions in superficial and internal lymph nodes, as well as in some organs, and causes significant economic losses worldwide. The aetiological agent of CLA is the bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis; however, the commercially available diagnostic tools present problems with regard to specificity, which can lead to false-negative results. This study aimed to develop an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of specific immunoglobulins in goats and sheep using recombinant C. pseudotuberculosis PLD, CP40, PknG, DtxR and Grx proteins. For validation of the ELISAs, 130 goat serum samples and 160 sheep serum samples were used. The best ELISA for goats was developed using a combination of PLD and CP40 as antigens at a 1:1 ratio, which presented 96.9% sensitivity and 98.4% specificity. The most effective ELISA for sheep presented 91% sensitivity and 98.7% specificity when recombinant PLD alone was used as the antigen. These ELISAs can be used as highly accurate tools in epidemiological surveys and for the serodiagnosis of C. pseudotuberculosis infection in goats and sheep.     

Ethiopian wolves conflict with pastoralists in small Afroalpine relicts

The peaceful coexistence between people and the rare Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis is being challenged by conflicts rising due to livestock predation by wild carnivores. Understanding the cultural and socio‐economic context of these conflicts can help to prevent negative attitudes and retaliatory killings, which have the potential to seriously compromise the survival of Ethiopian wolf populations in small Afroalpine relicts. With this objective in mind, questionnaire surveys were conducted in 140 households around the Aboi Gara range in north Ethiopia. Half of the households reported losing sheep and goats to wolves and golden jackals Canis aureus, with an annual average loss of 1.2 heads per year (10% of the average herd size), equivalent to 92 US$. Aboi Gara pastoralists considered wolves and jackals to be equally responsible for livestock killings. Households with large herds, closer to Afroalpine habitats, and using Afroalpine pastures for longer periods, reported more predation by wild carnivores. Most respondents (62%) expressed a positive attitude towards Ethiopian wolves, particularly literate people and those with smaller herds. We suggest ways to diminish conflict, including best livestock guarding techniques to lessen the risk of livestock predation by wild carnivores in Afroalpine areas.     

Food overlap between Mongolian gazelles and livestock in Omnogobi,southern Mongolia

Botanical and particle size compositions of the feces of sympatric Mongolian gazelles, sheep/goats, and horses collected in southern Mongolia in autumn 2002 were analyzed. The botanical composition of Mongolian gazelles was similar to that of sheep/goats where dicotyledonous plants (64.6% for Mongolian gazelles, 65.6% for sheep/goats), particularly woody fibers were important (39.5% for Mongolian gazelles, 19.5% for sheep/goats). In contrast, horse feces were exclusively composed of graminoids (93.2%). Consequently, food overlap was great between Mongolian gazelles and sheep/goats (Piankas index: 0.977) but was small between Mongolian gazelles and horses (0.437) and sheep/goats and horses (0.421). Particle size distributions were also similar between Mongolian gazelles and sheep/goats, whereas they were different between horses and Mongolian gazelles and horses and sheep/goats. These results support our expectation based on the Jarman-Bell principle. Although interspecific competition cannot be inferred from a mere food overlap, our analyses suggest that sheep and goats are potential competitors for Mongolian gazelles. Therefore, the increase in the numbers of domestic sheep/goats might pose a risk for Mongolian gazelle populations.