Effect of Conidiobolus coronatus on the Cuticular and Internal Lipid Composition of Tettigonia viridissima Males

Conidiobolus coronatus is an entomopathogenic fungus which has a potential as a biological control agent of insects. The cuticular and internal lipid composition of infected and noninfected Tettigonia viridissima males were analyzed by GC/MS. A total of 49 compounds were identified in the infected and noninfected males, including fatty acids, fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), n‐alkanes, alcohols, sterols, and other organic compounds. The most abundant components of the cuticular and internal lipids of the insects were fatty acids. After exposure to C. coronatus, the cuticular lipids of the T. viridissima males contained 17 free fatty acids from C(8) to C(22), while the cuticular lipids of the noninfected insects contained only 15 fatty acids from C(12) to C(24). The cuticular and internal lipids of both the infected and the noninfected males also contained five FAMEs from C(15) to C(19), seven n‐alkanes from C(25) to C(34), five alcohols from C(16) to C(25), five sterols, and the following six other organic compounds: azelaic acid, phenylacetic acid, glutaric acid, benzoic acid, sebacic acid, and glycerol. The compounds which were present only in the cuticular lipids of the infected males could be due to fungal infection.     

Diversity in neuroblast number forming mushroom bodies of the higher dipterans (Insecta,Diptera, Brachycera Cyclorrhapha)

Neurogenesis in mushroom bodies is studied in 12 species of the higher dipterans. A significant difference in the number of neuroblasts forming mushroom bodies is found. In the majority of species studied, Kenyon cells are formed by four solitary neuroblasts. Among six calliphorid species, the number of neuroblasts increases up to 10–15 (mean 12.6) in each mushroom body in Calliphora vicina only. In young pupae of Muscina stabulans and M. livida, four polyneuroblastic prolipherative centers occur instead of solitary neuroblasts. These centers disintegrate later into numerous solitary neuroblasts. A hypothesis on the origin of the polyneuroblastic structure of mushroom bodies found in C. vicina and, earlier, in Musca domestica, is proposed.     

Application of Two‐Way Hierarchical Cluster Analysis for the Identification of Similarities between the Individual Lipid Fractions of Lucilia sericata

The composition of the cuticular and internal lipids of larvae and pupae of Lucilia sericata was studied using chromatographic techniques. The lipids from both stages of L. sericata had similar free fatty acid (FFA) profiles and also contained alcohols and cholesterol. The range of the number of C‐atoms detected for these classes of compounds was to some extent similar in larvae and pupae, but the relative amounts of each class differed between stages. Saturated as well as unsaturated FFAs with even and odd numbered C‐atom chains were present in both cuticular and internal lipids. The alcohol fractions of L. sericata were represented by free, straight‐chain primary alcohols containing an even number of C‐atoms. The lipid composition of male and female L. sericata adults and the hydrocarbon composition of all stages of L. sericata had previously been analyzed. To have a full overview of the lipid composition and to identify similarities or dissimilarities between the individual lipid fractions in this insect species, two‐way hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was performed using also the data from these previous publications. The content of FFA 18 : 1 (n‐9) was noticed to be very high in the cuticular fractions of larvae and pupae as well as in all internal fractions (male, female, larvae, and pupae) and low in the cuticular fractions of male and female imago. The contents of FFAs 16 : 0 and 16 : 1 (n‐9), cholesterol, and the n‐alkanes n‐C₃₁, n‐C₂₉, n‐C₂₇, n‐C₂₅, and n‐C₂₃ varied between particular fractions, whereas the amounts of other compounds were similar in all fractions.     

The external morphology of contact-chemoreceptive hairs of flies and the motility of the tips of these hairs

The external morphology of contact-chemoreceptive hairs (taste hairs) of six fly species, Calliphora vicina, Lucilia caesar, Musca domestica, Phormia terranovae, Sarcophaga carnaria and Stomoxys calcitrans, is described. The species can be distinguished by the differences between the patterns of taste hairs at the ventral side of their prothoracic tarsi. Taste hairs can be subdivided into morphological types, using the shape of the cuticle around the apical pore as criterion, even though this shape changes slightly on opening and closing of the pore. Light microscopical studies reveal that the nature and osmolarity of stimuli are decisive for the effect stimuli have on the shape of the top of the labellar hairs. The motions of the apical cuticle appear to be reversible. Gentle ultrasonic treatment preserves the shape of the cuticle of the top and the diameter of the pores on fluid stimulation. This technique makes it possible to study the effect of a previous stimulation on both tarsal and labellar hairs with the scanning electron microscope. It is supposed that stimuli can affect cuticular components around the pore, producing volume changes in that cuticle which alter the diameter of the pore.     

Parasites,predators and other arthropods associated withMusca domestica and other flies breeding in bovine manure

The species of flies breeding in bovine manure, their parasites and predators as well as other associated arthropods in 3 localities in and near Bangalore are recoreded. The flies areMusca domestica L.,Musca pattoni Austen,Stomoxys calcitrans L.,Physiphora aenea F.,Physiphora demandata F.,Sargus metallinus F.,Sepsis thoracica R.-D.,Sepsis nitens Wiedemann,Sphaerocera scabricula Hal, andLeptocera (Coproica) hirtula Rondani. Four species of hymenopterous pupal parasites of these flies have been obtained:Spalangia cameroni Perkins from pupae ofM. domestica, M. pattoni, S. calcitrans, P. aenea andP. demandata; Spalangia endius Walker from pupae ofM. domestica, M. pattoni andS. calcitrans; Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis from pupae ofM. domestica andS. calcitrans; andDirhinus trichiophthalmus Masi from pupae ofSargus metallinus F. Percentage parasitism of fly puparia in field samples was noted. Four species ofHister andAleochara puberula Klug feeding on various immature stages ofM. domestica, 2 species of scarabaeid beetles, 2 species of ants and a pseudoscorpion were also found in the manure. The importance of biotic regulatory factors in the control of flies is discussed.

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Résumé Dans 3 localités de Bangalore ou proches de cette ville, on a inventorié les espèces de mouches vivant dans le fumier de vache, leurs parasites et prédateurs ainsi que d'autres arthropodes associés. Les mouches récoltées sont:Musca domestica L.,Musca pattoni Austen,Stomoxys calcitrans L.,Physiphora aenea F.,Physiphora demandata F.,Sargus metallinus F.,Sepsis thoracica R-D.,Sepsis nitens Wiedemann,Sphaerocera scabricula Hal. etLeptocera (Coproica) hirtula Rondani. Quatre espèces d'hyménoptères parasites des pupes ont été obtenues de ces mouches:Spalangia cameroni Perkins deM. domestica, M. pattoni, S. calcitrans, P. aenea etP. demandata: Spalangia endius Walker deM. domestica, M. pattoni etS. calcitrans, P. aenea etP. demandata; Spalangia endius Walker trans; etDirhinus trichiophthalmus Masi deSargus metallinus F. On a noté le taux de parasitisme des nymphes dans les conditions naturelles. Quatre espèces deHister etAleochara puberula Klug s'attaquant aux divers stades non imaginaux deM. domestica, 2 espèces de scarabeides, 2 espèces de fourmis et un pseudoscorpion ont été également trouvés dans le fumier. L'importance de ces facteurs biotiques dans la régulation des populations de mouches est discutée.

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Paper presented at the seminar on utilization of farm wastes for rural industrial growth, National Dairy Research Institute, Bangalore, 31 st December, 1975.

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This paper is published with the permission of the Director-General, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi     

Cuticle hydrolysis in four medically important fly species by enzymes of the entomopathogenic fungus Conidiobolus coronatus

Entomopathogenic fungi infect insects via penetration through the cuticle, which varies remarkably in chemical composition across species and life stages. Fungal infection involves the production of enzymes that hydrolyse cuticular proteins, chitin and lipids. Host specificity is associated with fungus–cuticle interactions related to substrate utilization and resistance to host‐specific inhibitors. The soil fungus Conidiobolus coronatus (Constantin) (Entomophthorales: Ancylistaceae) shows virulence against susceptible species. The larvae and pupae of Calliphora vicina (Robineau‐Desvoidy) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Calliphora vomitoria (Linnaeus), Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and Musca domestica (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Muscidae) are resistant, but adults exposed to C. coronatus quickly perish. Fungus was cultivated for 3 weeks in a minimal medium. Cell‐free filtrate, for which activity of elastase, N‐acetylglucosaminidase, chitobiosidase and lipase was determined, was used for in vitro hydrolysis of the cuticle from larvae, puparia and adults. Amounts of amino acids, N‐glucosamine and fatty acids released were measured after 8 h of incubation. The effectiveness of fungal enzymes was correlated with concentrations of compounds detected in the cuticles of tested insects. Positive correlations suggest compounds used by the fungus as nutrients, whereas negative correlations may indicate compounds responsible for insect resistance. Adult deaths result from the ingestion of conidia or fungal excretions.     

The effect of the entomopathogenic fungus Conidiobolus coronatus on the composition of cuticular and internal lipids of Blatta orientalis females

The composition of cuticular and internal lipids in females of the cockroach Blatta orientalis L. exposed to the entomopathogenic fungus Conidiobolus coronatus is investigated. The compositions of the fatty acids, n‐alkanes, alcohol, sterols and methyl esters in the lipids are chemically characterized. Although contact with virulent colonies of the fungus does not induce insect mortality, significant changes in the lipid profiles, both cuticular and internal, are found. The cuticular extracts of a control group of B. orientalis females contain 24 compounds varying in carbon chain length from C6 to C22. The main cuticular fatty acids identified are: C16:1, C16:0, C18:1 and C18:0_. The cuticular lipids of B. orientalis females after exposure to C. coronatus contain only 14 free fatty acids from C8 to C20. The highest concentrations identified are C16:0, C18:2 and C18:1. Analysis by gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry identifies the presence of a homologous series of n‐alkanes containing from 25 to 31 carbon atoms. In the case of the insects after fungal exposure, the content of the n‐alkanes in the cuticular lipid is two‐fold higher compared with the controls. Of the cuticular lipids, 11 alcohols are found, ranging from C12:0 to C20:0. There is no presence of alcohols in the internal lipids of the control B. orientalis females and in all of the extracts from the B. orientalis females after fungal exposure. In the samples analyzed, the most common sterol is cholesterol. This is present in the cuticular lipids and the internal lipids of all of the insects sampled. The cuticular and internal lipids of females contain five fatty acid methyl esters, ranging in size from C15 to C19.     

The antifungal activity of fatty acids of all stages of Sarcophaga carnaria L. (Diptera: Sarcophagidae)

Fatty acids as components of cuticular lipids of insects play a significant role in antifungal in protection against fungal infection. The chemical composition of cuticular and internal extracts obtained from all developmental stages of flesh flies Sarcophaga carnaria was identified. The fatty acids were detected using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and the most abundant for all examined stages were: 18:1 > 16:0 > 16:1 > 18:0 > 18:2. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) C20 were found in both, cuticular and internal extracts. GC–MS analysis showed higher relative content of PUFA in adults than in preimaginal stages.Fatty acids alone as well as their cuticular and internal extracts obtained from larvae, pupae male and female of S. carnaria were tested according to their potential antimicrobial activity against entomopathogenic fungi: Paecilomyces lilacinus, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, Lecanicillium lecanii, Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana (Tve-N39) and B. bassiana (Dv-1/07). FA presented diverse antimicrobial activity depending on the length of the chain and the presence of unsaturated bonds. Short chain and unsaturated FA (6:0, 11:0, 13:0) have shown significantly stronger activity against fungi but they were detected in lower concentrations. PUFA inhibit fungal growth more effectively than unsaturated long chain fatty acids. Cuticular and internal extracts of all living forms of S. carnaria exhibited approximately equal activity against tested entomopathogenic fungi. We presumed that the most abundant saturated long chain FA and additionally PUFA founded in our analysis are involved in protecting the flies against fungal infection.     

Search Efficiency of Spalangia cameroni and Muscidifurax raptor on Musca domestica Pupae in Dairy Cattle Farms in Denmark

Indoor releases of Spalangia cameroni Perkins and Muscidifurax raptor Girauelt & Sanders (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) were conducted in five organic dairy cattle farms to evaluate the overall effect on parasitism and efficiency at different pupal depths of Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). Overall, parasitism increased significantly from 5.3 to 28.8–28.7% of the exposed house fly pupae due to the release of pupal parasitoids. Spalangia cameroni was by far the most dominant species, contributing approximately 71.5–72.3% of the parasitism in the release and post-release period, whereas 20.9–24.4% could be attributed to Muscidifurax raptor. A naturally occurring ichneumonid, Phygadeuon fumator Gravenhorst (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) parasitized 4.1–6.8% of the exposed fly pupae. The placement of house fly pupae at two depths of the bedding, 5–10 and 15–20 cm had no significant effect on overall parasitism whereas M. raptor attacked the house fly pupae significantly more when placed in the 5–10 cm stratum (10.0%) compared to the 15–20 cm stratum (3.2%). The two pupal depths had no significant effect on parasitism by S. cameroni and P. fumator. Albeit S. cameroni contributed significantly to overall parasitism, M. raptor had a significantly higher attack rate when first a female had located bags with sentinel pupae. Based on the above results, however, S. cameroni seems the most appropriate species for managing house flies in straw bedded dairy cattle farms in Denmark. A biological control strategy of simultaneous releases of S. cameroni and M. raptor is discussed.     

Competition between the filth fly parasitoids Muscidifurax raptor and M. raptorellus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Competition bioassays were conducted with the filth fly pupal parasitoids Muscidurax raptor (Girault & Sanders) and M. raptorellus (Kogan & Legner) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) using house fly Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) hosts at different host densities. Muscidifurax raptor had a significant impact on M. raptorellus when hosts were limiting in sequential parasitism tests. Fewer than six M. raptorellus adult progeny emerged from groups of 50 fly pupae that were parasitized by M. raptor at the same time or when M. raptor parasitism preceded M. raptorellus by 48 h, respectively, compared with 42–55 M. raptorellus progeny produced when this species was tested alone. Production of M. raptor was significantly lower when parasitism by this species was preceded by M. raptorellus (25) than when M. raptor was tested alone (43). When the two species parasitized hosts at the same time in different proportions at low host:parasitoid densities (5:1), M. raptorellus produced 13 progeny per parent female when it was the sole species present and fewer than two when M. raptor was present. No negative impact of M. raptorellus on M. raptor was observed. Neither species had a substantial effect on the success of the other at higher host:parasitoid densities.     

Effect of exposure to chlorpyrifos on the cuticular and internal lipid composition of Blattella germanica males

The results of our research on the cuticular and internal lipids of Blattella germanica males provide new information on variation in the composition of the cuticular and internal lipids of B. germanica males after exposure to the presence of the insecticide. gas chromatography and gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry analyses were used to identify and quantify the cuticular and internal lipid composition in males and males exposed to insecticide. There were significantly more acids having an even number of carbon atoms in the molecule, and these were also generally in higher concentrations. The following acids were in a higher concentration: C16:0 and C18:1, C18:2, C18:0. In both males and males exposed to insecticide, 24 fatty acids ranging from C6 to C22 were determined. However, there was a significantly higher content of fatty acids in the surface lipids of B. germanica males after exposure to insecticide. Our results indicate a higher content of n‐alkanes, sterols, particularly cholesterol, fatty acids, and fatty acid methyl esters in the B. germanica surface after exposure to chlorpyrifos than in males that were not exposed.     

Do chemical signals mediate reproductive behavior of Trupanea vicina,an emerging pest of ornamental marigold production in California?

A variety of signals mediate reproductive behaviors of Tephritidae, and studies of such behaviors have focused predominantly on economically important tephritid pest species. Trupanea vicina (Wulp) (Diptera: Tephritidae: Tephritinae), an Asteraceae‐feeding fruit fly, was not considered a pest until recently, when large populations developed on marigolds in California (USA) nurseries. Understanding courtship behavior and the signals that mediate mating behavior in T. vicina could produce leads for new methods of controlling this emerging pest species. Most of the sexual behaviors observed in T. vicina were expressed by males and reflected the general characteristics of known reproductive behaviors in the genus Trupanea. Analyses of headspace volatiles indicated the presence of almost exclusively one male‐specific compound, 1‐nonanol. Age‐related changes were observed in the amount but not in the composition of the male‐produced volatiles. Aerations of males showed no diel periodicity in 1‐nonanol production, but an increase after mating. Solid‐phase microextraction wipe samples from various body parts of male T. vicina showed that 1‐nonanol was concentrated on the abdomens of males exhibiting pleural distension. Laboratory bioassays failed to detect any strong attraction of either sex to synthetic 1‐nonanol. Although the functional role of 1‐nonanol in T. vicina's biology is not yet clear, we suggest that it must have some role in the life history of this species, given the relatively large amounts in which it is produced, and the specialized structures used in its production and release. Analysis of cuticular hydrocarbons extracted from males and females showed pronounced sexual dimorphism in the cuticular lipid profiles, suggesting that these compounds may have a role as short‐range and contact pheromones.     

Phoretic association betweenMacrocheles muscaedomesticae (Acari: Macrochelidae) and flies inhabiting poultry manure in Peninsular Malaysia

The phoretic association betweenMacrocheles muscaedomesticae and flies that inhabited poultry manure in a poultry farm in Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia was studied. The effects of temperature, relative humidity and fly abundance on phoretic rates also were in vestigated.The most abundant fly species found wasMusca domestica; Musca sorbens, Chrysomyia megacephala andOphyra chalcogaster were present in relatively large numbers.Representatives of ten families of mites were found on collectedMu. domestica. The most common mite wasMa. muscaedomesticae (Macrochelidae), found on all four species of flies mentioned above. The highest infestation (2.0%) occurred onO. chalcogaster butMu. domestica had the highest average number infested (5.7).The ventral part of the housefly's abdomen was the most common site of mite attachment. Usually only one mite was found attached per fly.The highest phoretic rate recorded was 64.4Ma. muscaedomesticae per 1000Mu. domestica. There was no correlation between phoretic rates andMa. muscaedomesticae abundance, nor was relative humidity a factor. However, a positive correlation was recorded in this host species between phoretic rates and temperature.This paper forms part of the Ph. D. thesis of the author submitted to the Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia, in March 1988.     

Developmental and metabolic changes induced by anoxia in diapausing and non-diapausing flesh fly pupae

Summary Anaerobic metabolism was compared in nondiapausing (ND) and diapausing (D) pupae of the flesh fly,Sarcophage crassipalpis using in vivo¹³C NMR spectroscopy. Anoxia-induced changes in the development of ND and D pupae were correlated with oxidative metabolism and mitochondrial integrity. ND pupae tolerated 1 day of anoxia without any obvious developmental effect, while D pupae tolerated up to 6 days of anoxia. Longer exposure to anoxia (3 days in ND pupae and up to 14 days in D pupae) allowed development to the pharate adult stage but precluded eclosion. Four-day anoxia applied to ND pupae during 4–6 days post-pupariation arrested development in a stage indistinguishable from diapause. This morphological stasis was accompanied by 80% suppression of oxidative metabolism and a 100% increase in glycerol concentration. However, unlike a true diapause, this arrest could not be terminated with 20-hydroxyecdysone or hexane. Four-day anoxia treatment applied to D pupae stimulated development and raised their oxygen consumption. The anoxia-induced changes in oxidative metabolism were not accompanied by mitochondrial changes. Exposure to 95%PO₂ atmosphere had no apparent developmental or metabolic effects on ND or D pupae. Major metabolites (lipids, trehalose, glycogen, glycerol, glutamine, and alanine) were detected in the ND and D pupae but their rates of turnover differed. Anoxia induced synthesis of glycerol and alanine in both D and ND pupae. Injected labeled glucose was incorporated primarily into trehalose and glycogen by both D and ND pupae. The rate of incorporation in ND pupae was approximately twice that observed in D pupae. Anoxia resulted in glycerol and alanine synthesis in both groups of pupae, but more glycerol was labeled in ND pupae and more alanine in D pupae. Glycogen and trehalose were depleted in the D pupae under anoxia. Cold acclimation had no effect on the steady-state or rate of synthesis of metabolites.     

Competence of the housefly,Musca domestica,as a vector of Microsporum canis under experimental conditions

Abstract The role of Musca domestica Linnaeus as a vector of the dermatophyte Microsporum canis was investigated under experimental laboratory conditions. About 400 4‐day‐old M. domestica flies were divided into two groups. Group A consisted of about 200 infected flies and group B comprised about 200 uninfected flies that were used as controls. Each trial was run three times. Flies from group A were fed for 24 h with a solution of ultra‐high temperature‐treated (UHT) milk containing about 10⁶ colony‐forming units (CFU) per mL of M. canis (infected milk inoculum [IMI]). The control group (group B) was fed with only UHT milk spiked with a teaspoon of honey. Microsporum canis was detected from faeces, vomitus, external surfaces and internal organs of 20 adult flies, eggs, first‐, second‐ and third‐stage (L1, L2, L3) larvae and pupae of each group, as well from 20 adult newly emerged flies (NEFs; from infected generations only). Samples were collected at 2, 4, 6 and 24 h post‐infection (p.i.) (i.e. the times at which IMI was available) and on 2, 5, 7 and 8 days p.i. from adult flies, faeces and vomitus. Eggs, L1, L2, L3 and pupae were processed as soon as they appeared. Equivalent samples were taken from group B. All the samples were individually cultured. Microsporum canis was not isolated from the control group, from eggs, larvae, pupae or NEFs, or from faeces and vomitus, although it was detected on the body surface (26.2%) and internal organs (26.9%) of adult flies. The highest positivity for M. canis was detected on flies within the first 6 h p.i. (i.e. 57.2% on the body surface and 71.6% in the internal organs). No M. canis was isolated at 24 h p.i., but it was isolated from the body surface only at 2 and 5 days p.i. The results presented provide evidence that M. domestica transmits M. canis mechanically with its outer body surface for up to 5 days p.i., but does not do so through its vomitus and faeces or transovarially. The role played by M. domestica in the epidemiology of human and animal dermatophytoses is discussed.     

Flies (Diptera: Muscidae: Calliphoridae) are efficient pollinators of Allium ampeloprasum L. (Alliaceae) in field cages

In conjunction with efforts to identify efficient insect pollinators for seed multiplication of cross-pollinated plant species stored and maintained by USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), experiments were conducted to assess and compare the efficiency of the house fly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), and Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera: Calliphoridae), and different densities of each fly species, to pollinate leek, Allium ampeloprasum L., plant inventory (PI) accessions in field cages for seed yield maximization and high germination. Cages with flowering plants were exposed to 0 flies or stocked with 100, 250, and 500 M. domestica or C. vicina pupae per week for 6 (2002) and 7 (2004) wk. Seed yield (weight per cage) increased linearly as fly densities (C. vicina or M. domestica) increased from 0 to 500 pupae per week, with 500 fly cages averaging 340.7 g (C. vicina) and 70.5 g (M. domestica) of seed in 2002 (PI 368343) and 615.3 g (PI 168977) and 357.5 g (PI 368343) in 2004 when only the C. vicina was used. For 0, 100, and 250 fly cages, seed yields averaged between 2.3 and 175.3 g in 2002 and 10.7 and 273.1 g in 2004. Mean 100-seed weights between treatments ranged narrowly between 0.4 and 0.5 g in 2002 and 0.3 and 0.4 g in 2004, and germination rates of seed lots from "fly cages" were mostly > or =80% in both years. The C. vicina is an efficient and cost-effective pollinator ($388.97 for pupae and shipping, compared with $2,400 for honey bee, Apis mellifera L. [Hymenoptera: Apidae], nuclei) for caged leek accessions, with 250 and 500 C. vicina pupae per week required to produce sufficient seed (130 g) to fill an accession storage bag in the WRPIS gene bank.     

The Bionomics ofCoptera Haywardi(Ogloblin) (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae) and Other Pupal Parasitoids of Tephritid Fruit Flies (Diptera)

The endoparasitoidCoptera haywardi(Ogloblin) (Diapriidae) was discovered in Mexico attacking the pupae of the Mexican fruit fly,Anastrepha ludens(Loew). Typically, parasitoids of Diptera Cychlorrhapha pupae develop as ectoparasitoids and are generalists that attack hosts in a number of families. Aspects of the bionomics ofC. haywardiwere compared to those of two chalcidoid ectoparasitoids,Dirhinus himalayanusWestwood andSpalangia geminaBoucek.C. haywardideveloped in three genera of Tephritidae, but not in species of other families. The two species of chalcidoids developed in all the calypterate and acalypterate hosts to which they were exposed. In an olfactometerC. haywardipreferredAnastrepha suspensa(Loew) pupae, while the chalcidoids preferred the pupae ofMusca domestica L.This preference inS. geminawas diminished in insects that had been reared onA. suspensa. C. haywardioviposited in theA. suspensapupae that had been previously parasitized by the braconidDiachasmimorpha longicaudata(Ashmead). However, it completed development only in unparasitized pupae. Mortality of the primary parasitoid due toD. himalayanuswas approximately two-thirds the mortality inflicted on the host fly.S. geminadid not discriminate between parasitized and unparasitized pupae ofA. suspensaand developed in both.C. haywardiappears to have a more restricted host range relative to chalcidoid pupal parasitoids and this may be due to its endoparasitic development.     

The role played by flies in the transmission of the human and animal dermatophytic infection

From body of 300 flies (Musca domestica andSarcophaga carnaria) captured in open rural the authors succeed in isolating 4 times (1.33%) telluric dermatophytes: 3 timesMicrosporum canis and 1 time simultaneouslyMicrosporum gypseum andTrichophyton terrestre.     

Discovery of novel trimethylalkanes in the internal hydrocarbons of developing pupae of Heliothis virescens and Helicoverpa zea

Novel trimethyl-branched alkanes which eluted with the monomethylalkanes were identified in the internal lipids of Helicoverpa zea but were not present in Heliothis virescens. Their structures were unique in that the first methyl branch occurred on carbon 2 and the 2nd and 3rd methyl branch points were separated by a single methylene. Novel trimethylalkanes identified from their chemical ionization and electron impact mass spectra were 2,18,20-trimethyltetratriacontane, 2,18,20-trimethylhexatriacontane, and 2,24,26-trimethyldotetracontane. Previous reports did not find these trimethylalkanes in the cuticular surface lipids of larvae, pupae or adults of either species. The internal pupal hydrocarbons of H. virescens and H. zea amounted to 123 μg and 304 μg per pupa, respectively. They consisted of n-alkanes (8 and 4%, respectively) and methyl-branched alkanes (88 and 94%, respectively). The n-alkanes ranged in chain length from approximately 21 to 35 carbons and the methyl-branched alkanes from approximately 26 to 55 carbons vs. methyl-branched alkanes from 28 to 37 carbons previously reported for hydrocarbons from the pupal cuticular surface. The major n-alkane was heptacosane (3.3 and 1.2%, respectively, in H. virescens and H. zea). The major methyl-branched alkanes in H. virescens were methylhentriacontane (15%), methyltritriacontane (12%) and dimethyltritriacontane (10%), and in H. zea were methylnonacosane (17%), dimethylnonacosane (9%) and methylhentriacontane (20%). Except for the novel trimethylalkanes, the methylalkane branch points were predominantly on odd-numbered carbons as has been reported for these and other species.