Effects of captivity,diet, and relocation on the gut bacterial communities of white‐footed mice

Microbes can have important impacts on their host's survival. Captive breeding programs for endangered species include periods of captivity that can ultimately have an impact on reintroduction success. No study to date has investigated the impacts of captive diet on the gut microbiota during the relocation process of generalist species. This study simulated a captive breeding program with white‐footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) to describe the variability in gut microbial community structure and composition during captivity and relocation in their natural habitat, and compared it to wild individuals. Mice born in captivity were fed two different diets, a control with dry standardized pellets and a treatment with nonprocessed components that reflect a version of their wild diet that could be provided in captivity. The mice from the two groups were then relocated to their natural habitat. Relocated mice that had the treatment diet had more phylotypes in common with the wild‐host microbiota than mice under the control diet or mice kept in captivity. These results have broad implications for our understanding of microbial community dynamics and the effects of captivity on reintroduced animals, including the potential impact on the survival of endangered species. This study demonstrates that ex situ conservation actions should consider a more holistic perspective of an animal's biology including its microbes.     

Harvesting, rumination, digestion, and passage of fruit and leaf diets by a small ruminant, the blue duiker

Because small ruminants (<15 kg) have a high ratio of metabolic rate to fermentation capacity, they are expected to select and require low-fiber, nutrient-dense concentrate diets. However, recent studies suggest that small ruminants may not be as limited in their digestive capacity as previously thought. In this study, we examined harvesting, rumination, digestion, and passage of three diets (domestic figs Ficus carica, fresh alfalfa Medicago sativa, and Pacific willow leaves Salix lasiandra) ranging from 10 to 50% neutral detergent fiber content (NDF) in captive blue duikers (Cephalophus monticola, 4 kg). Harvesting and rumination rates were obtained by observing and videotaping animals on each diet, and digestibility and intake were determined by conducting total collection digestion trials. We estimated mean retention time of liquid and particulate digesta by administering Co-EDTA and forages labelled with YbNO₃ in a pulse dose and monitoring fecal output over 4 days. Duikers harvested and ruminated the fig diet faster than the alfalfa and willow diets. Likewise, they achieved higher dry matter, energy, NDF, and protein digestibility when eating figs, yet achieved a higher daily digestible energy intake on the fresh willow and alfalfa than on the figs by eating proportionately more of these forages. Duikers maintained a positive nitrogen balance on all diets, including figs, which contained only 6.3% crude protein. Mean retention time of cell wall in the duikers’ digestive tract declined with increasing NDF and cellulose content of the diet. Digestibility coefficients and mean retention times of these small ruminants were virtually equivalent to those measured for ruminants two orders of magnitude larger, suggesting that they are well adapted for a mixed diet. Received: 10 August 1999 / Accepted: 16 November 1999     

Tooth wear in captive wild ruminant species differs from that of free-ranging conspecifics

The mesowear method evaluates the wear patterns of herbivore cheek teeth by visually evaluating the facet development of the occlusal surfaces. It thus allows classification of most herbivorous ungulates into browsers, grazers or intermediate feeders, due to the fact that in grazers, tooth wear is characterized by a comparatively high degree of abrasion, most probably due to the presence of silicacious phytoliths in grasses, a higher amount of dust and grit adhering to their forage, or both. It has been suggested that excessive tooth wear could be a particularly limiting factor in the husbandry of captive large browsing species, and major tooth wear was demonstrated in captive as compared to free-ranging giraffe. If this increased tooth wear in captivity was an effect of feeding type and diets fed, then it would be expected that other browsing species are affected in a similar manner. In order to test this hypothesis, we investigated the dental mesowear pattern in captive individuals of 19 ruminant species and compared the results to data on free-ranging animals. Compared to free-ranging populations, captive browsers show a significantly more abrasion-dominated tooth wear signal. The reverse applies to captive grazers, which tend to show a less abrasion-dominated wear in captivity. Captive ruminants were generally more homogenous in their wear signature than free-ranging ruminants. If grit contamination in the natural habitat is a major cause of dental wear in grazers, then diets in captivity, although similar in botanical composition, most likely contain less abrasives due to feeding hygiene. If dental wear is one of the major factors limiting longevity, then captive grazers should achieve longer lifespans than both captive browsers and free-ranging grazers. In particular with respect to browsers, the results suggest that captive feeding regimes could be improved.     

Reproductive seasonality in captive wild ruminants: implications for biogeographical adaptation,photoperiodic control,and life history

Many ruminant species show seasonal patterns of reproduction. Causes for this are widely debated, and include adaptations to seasonal availability of resources (with cues either from body condition in more tropical, or from photoperiodism in higher latitude habitats) and/or defence strategies against predators. Conclusions so far are limited to datasets with less than 30 species. Here, we use a dataset on 110 wild ruminant species kept in captivity in temperate‐zone zoos to describe their reproductive patterns quantitatively [determining the birth peak breadth (BPB) as the number of days in which 80% of all births occur]; then we link this pattern to various biological characteristics [latitude of origin, mother‐young‐relationship (hider/follower), proportion of grass in the natural diet (grazer/browser), sexual size dimorphism/mating system], and compare it with reports for free‐ranging animals. When comparing taxonomic subgroups, variance in BPB is highly correlated to the minimum, but not the maximum BPB, suggesting that a high BPB (i.e. an aseasonal reproductive pattern) is the plesiomorphic character in ruminants. Globally, latitude of natural origin is highly correlated to the BPB observed in captivity, supporting an overruling impact of photoperiodism on ruminant reproduction. Feeding type has no additional influence; the hider/follower dichotomy, associated with the anti‐predator strategy of ‘swamping’, has additional influence in the subset of African species only. Sexual size dimorphism and mating system are marginally associated with the BPB, potentially indicating a facilitation of polygamy under seasonal conditions. The difference in the calculated Julian date of conception between captive populations and that reported for free‐ranging ones corresponds to the one expected if absolute day length was the main trigger in highly seasonal species: calculated day length at the time of conception between free‐ranging and captive populations followed a y = x relationship. Only 11 species (all originating from lower latitudes) were considered to change their reproductive pattern distinctively between the wild and captivity, with 10 becoming less seasonal (but not aseasonal) in human care, indicating that seasonality observed in the wild was partly resource‐associated. Only one species (Antidorcas marsupialis) became more seasonal in captivity, presumably because resource availability in the wild overrules the innate photoperiodic response. Reproductive seasonality explains additional variance in the body mass–gestation period relationship, with more seasonal species having shorter gestation periods for their body size. We conclude that photoperiodism, and in particular absolute day length, are genetically fixed triggers for reproduction that may be malleable to some extent by body condition, and that plasticity in gestation length is an important facilitator that may partly explain the success of ruminant radiation to high latitudes. Evidence for an anti‐predator strategy involving seasonal reproduction is limited to African species. Reproductive seasonality following rainfall patterns may not be an adaptation to give birth in periods of high resource availability but an adaptation to allow conception only at times of good body condition.     

Polymerase chain reaction detection of Clostridium perfringens in feces from captive and wild chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes

Background For veterinary management of non‐human primates in captivity, and conservation of wild‐living primates, management of their health risks is necessary. Incidences of pathogenic bacteria in the fecal specimens are considered as one of the useful indicators for non‐invasive health monitoring. Methods We carried out the detection of Clostridium perfringens in feces from captive and wild chimpanzees by the rapid polymerase chain reaction method. Results The bacterium was detected in most fecal specimens (80%) in captive chimpanzees. Contrarily, the detection rate in the wild chimpanzees was low, with 23% (n = 12) of 53 fecal samples from the Bossou group, Guinea, and 1.2% (1/81) in the Mahale group, Tanzania. Conclusions These results show that the intestinal microflora differs between Pan populations under various living conditions, being influenced by their diet and environment.     

Acoustic accelerometry reveals diel activity patterns in premigratory Port Jackson sharks

Distinguishing the factors that influence activity within a species advances understanding of their behavior and ecology. Continuous observation in the marine environment is not feasible but biotelemetry devices provide an opportunity for detailed analysis of movements and activity patterns. This study investigated the detail that calibration of accelerometers measuring root mean square (RMS) acceleration with video footage can add to understanding the activity patterns of male and female Port Jackson sharks (Heterodontus portusjacksoni) in a captive environment. Linear regression was used to relate RMS acceleration output to time‐matched behavior captured on video to quantify diel activity patterns. To validate captive data, diel patterns from captive sharks were compared with diel movement data from free‐ranging sharks using passive acoustic tracking. The RMS acceleration data showed captive sharks exhibited nocturnal diel patterns peaking during the late evening before midnight and decreasing before sunrise. Correlation analysis revealed that captive animals displayed similar activity patterns to free‐ranging sharks. The timing of wild shark departures for migration in the late breeding season corresponded with elevated diel activity at night within the captive individuals, suggesting a form of migratory restlessness in captivity. By directly relating RMS acceleration output to activity level, we show that sex, time of day, and sex‐specific seasonal behavior all influenced activity levels. This study contributes to a growing body of evidence that RMS acceleration data are a promising method to determine activity patterns of cryptic marine animals and can provide more detailed information when validated in captivity.     

Mineral concentrations in serum/plasma and liver tissue of captive and free‐ranging Rhinoceros species

Mineral implications in health issues of captive rhinos have received much attention lately. This study was undertaken to establish reference values for the mineral status of rhinos. Serum/plasma samples of free‐ranging black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinos and of captive black, white, Indian (Rhinoceros unicornis), and Sumatran (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) rhinos, as well as liver tissue samples of captive black, white, and Indian rhinos were analyzed for mineral content. Circulating mineral levels of free‐ranging animals were subject to variation according to region. In free‐ranging animals, high molybdenum (Mo) values compared to horse normals were striking. Captive animals displayed even higher circulating Mo concentrations. The significance of iron (Fe) overload in captive specimens of the browsing rhinos (black and Sumatran) was confirmed. Hepatic Fe levels increased in blacks with age. Although this Fe overload is suspected to be linked with diets, the data indicate that this is not due solely to an excessive dietary Fe supply. Whereas the grazing species (white and Indian) had high liver copper (Cu) levels, the browsing species had low to marginal liver Cu concentrations. Liver concentrations of K, Mg, Co, and Mo increased with age in captive black rhinos. Additional findings include high circulating Se levels in all rhino species. Future research should be directed at investigating factors leading to high Fe levels, and at investigating Cu metabolism in captive rhinoceros species. Zoo Biol 24:51–72, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The effect of captivity on the primate gut microbiome varies with host dietary niche

Despite careful attention to animal nutrition and wellbeing, gastrointestinal distress remains relatively common in captive non‐human primates (NHPs), particularly dietary specialists such as folivores. These patterns may be a result of marked dietary differences between captive and wild settings and associated impacts on the gut microbiome. However, given that most existing studies target NHP dietary specialists, it is unclear if captive environments have distinct impacts on the gut microbiome of NHPs with different dietary niches. To begin to examine this question, we used 16S ribosomal RNA gene amplicon sequences to compare the gut microbiomes of five NHP genera categorized either as folivores (Alouatta, Colobus) or non‐folivores (Cercopithecus, Gorilla, Pan) sampled both in captivity and in the wild. Though captivity affected the gut microbiomes of all NHPs in this study, the effects were largest in folivorous NHPs. Shifts in gut microbial diversity and in the relative abundances of fiber‐degrading microbial taxa suggest that these findings are driven by marked dietary shifts for folivorous NHPs in captive settings. We propose that zoos and other captive care institutions consider including more natural browse in folivorous NHP diets and regularly bank fecal samples to further explore the relationship between NHP diet, the gut microbiome, and health outcomes.     

Gut microbial ecology of the Critically Endangered Fijian crested iguana (Brachylophus vitiensis): Effects of captivity status and host reintroduction on endogenous microbiomes

Animals often exhibit distinct microbial communities when maintained in captivity as compared to when in the wild. Such differentiation may be significant in headstart and reintroduction programs where individuals spend some time in captivity before release into native habitats. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we (i) assessed differences in gut microbial communities between captive and wild Fijian crested iguanas (Brachylophus vitiensis) and (ii) resampled gut microbiota in captive iguanas released onto a native island to monitor microbiome restructuring in the wild. We used both cloacal swabs and fecal samples to further increase our understanding of gut microbial ecology in this IUCN Critically Endangered species. We found significant differentiation in gut microbial community composition and structure between captive and wild iguanas in both sampling schemes. Approximately two months postrelease, microbial communities in cloacal samples from formerly captive iguanas closely resembled wild counterparts. Interestingly, microbial communities in fecal samples from these individuals remained significantly distinct from wild conspecifics. Our results indicate that captive upbringings can lead to differences in microbial assemblages in headstart iguanas as compared to wild individuals even after host reintroduction into native conditions. This investigation highlights the necessity of continuous monitoring of reintroduced animals in the wild to ensure successful acclimatization and release.     

Captive Breeding Does Not Alter Brain Volume in a Marsupial Over a Few Generations

Captive breeding followed by reintroduction to the wild is a common component of conservation management plans for various taxa. Although it is commonly used, captive breeding can result in morphological changes, including brain size decrease. Brain size reduction has been associated with behavioral changes in domestic animals, and such changes may negatively influence reintroduction success of captive‐bred animals. Many marsupials are currently bred in captivity for reintroduction, yet the impacts of captive breeding on brain size have never been studied in this taxa. We investigated the impacts of a few generations (2–7) of captive breeding on brain volume in the stripe‐faced dunnart (Sminthopsis macroura), and found that captive breeding in a relatively enriched environment did not cause any changes in brain volume. Nonetheless, we advocate that great care be taken to provide suitable husbandry conditions and to minimize the number of captive generations if marsupial reintroduction programs are to be successful. Zoo Biol 31:82;–86, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Endocrine Changes in Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina) Pups Undergoing Rehabilitation

Rehabilitating pinniped pups are often admitted to care centers as neonates and generally lack maternal investment and are in poor body condition. Upon admittance to a rehabilitation facility, pups are typically fed a milk replacement formula via gavage, which is switched to frozen fish upon weaning. While rehabilitation has been successful in terms of recovery and release, preweaning growth rates in captivity are consistently lower than in the wild. Indicators of stress (cortisol and total thyroxine; TT4), and standard morphometrics, of harbor seal pups in rehabilitation (n = 20) were determined for both preweaned and weaned pups. Hormone concentrations and standard morphometrics from pups in care were compared with free‐ranging harbor seal pups (n = 59). Pups in rehabilitation gained mass on both milk and fish diets. Preweaned pups had greater mean serum cortisol and similar TT4 concentrations than weaned pups. Free‐ranging harbor seal pups were heavier and longer than preweaned and weaned pups in rehabilitation. The free‐ranging pups had the lowest cortisol and highest TT4 concentrations of any of the pups. These results suggest that weaned pups that have undergone rehabilitation are not physiologically equivalent to free‐ranging weaned pups. Additional research is needed regarding physiological changes in endocrine values during early development under captive care conditions. This information should be useful to marine mammal rehabilitation centers in their development of care protocols and release criteria for rehabilitating harbor seal pups. Zoo Biol. 32:134–141, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Proximate,vitamins A and E,and mineral composition of free‐ranging cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus) from St. Catherines Island,Georgia

Although rodents are an integral part of numerous carnivore diets, there is little published information regarding nutrient composition in free‐ranging mice for comparison with laboratory‐reared prey. Cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus, n=6) were captured on St. Catherines Island, Georgia, and analyzed for water, ash, protein, and fat content (proximate constituents), as well as minerals and the fat‐soluble vitamins A and E. The overall body composition (mean±SD: 65.8%±1.9% water, 10.9%±2.2% ash, 56.4%±4.1% protein, and 27.2%±3.9% fat) was similar to published values for adult laboratory mice (Mus domesticus). The macro‐ (Ca, K, Mg, Na, and P) and trace (Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) mineral levels were also similar to previously reported values for laboratory mice, and in general met or exceeded the established nutrient requirements for domestic carnivores. Vitamin E ranged from 77 to 170 IU/kg dry matter (DM) in these mice–again, similar to values previously quantified in laboratory mice. However, the vitamin A concentrations (21,947±6,893 IU/kg DM) in the free‐ranging mice were consistently and substantially lower than values reported for whole laboratory mice. To our knowledge, this is the first quantification of vitamin A in free‐ranging mice used as prey by carnivores. While other nutrients measured were similar between captive‐reared and free‐ranging mice, the current data suggest the need for further investigation of vitamin A nutrition in the development of optimal diets for carnivores in captivity. Zoo Biol 23:253–261, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Acid‐insoluble ash as a measure of dry matter digestibility in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana)

There are limited data on the diet dry matter digestibility (DMD) of captive African elephants. Although the total fecal collection method is the standard for determining DMD, it is labor‐intensive, time‐consuming, and expensive. The acid‐insoluble ash (AIA) marker technique has been used successfully to determine DMD in ruminants and monogastrics. The objective of this study was to assess how accurately the AIA marker technique could estimate the DMD of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Three mature male African elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida were used in this study. The animals were offered a Bermuda grass hay‐based ration, and the total dry matter intake (DMI) and total fecal output were measured daily over a 7‐day period to determine the total collection DMD. The feed ingredients and fecal samples were also analyzed for AIA. Although there were differences (P<0.05) in total DMI and total fecal outputs, the DMD values did not (P>0.05) differ (35.1±0.72 vs. 37.1±0.72 for total collection and AIA, respectively). There was a linear (y=0.9461x; R²=0.74) relationship between the total collection and AIA marker technique DMD values. These results suggest that AIA can be used to accurately estimate the DMD of captive African elephants. Zoo Biol 0:1–5, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive and free‐living red knots Calidris canutus exhibit differences in non‐induced immunity that suggest different immune strategies in different environments

Experiments on captive animals, in which conditions can be controlled, are useful for examining complex biological phenomena such as immune function. Such experiments have increased our understanding of immune responses in the context of trade‐offs and pathogen pressure. However, few studies have examined how captivity itself affects immune function. We used microbial killing, leukocyte concentrations and complement‐natural antibody assays to examine non‐induced (constitutive) immunity in captive and free‐living red knots Calidris canutus. Univariate and multivariate analyses indicated that captive and free‐living birds differed in their immune strategies. Captive birds showed reduced S. aureus killing, C. albicans killing, heterophils, and eosinophils. In a principal component analysis, the affected variables fell onto a single axis, that reflected phagocytosis and inflammation based immunity. We discuss possible reasons for this result in an immune cost and protective benefit framework.     

Dental eruption schedules of wild and captive baboons

Dental eruption schedules previously used to age wild baboons have in the past derived from studies of captive animals housed under standard conditions and fed standard laboratory diets. This paper reports for the first time eruption schedules derived from wild baboons, the yellow baboons (Papio hamadryas cynocephalus) of Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, and compares these schedules with those of other baboon subspecies inhabiting both similar and dissimilar environments. Eighteen males and twelve females from the Viramba groups, ranging in age from 21 to 103 months, were trapped, and dental impressions and notes were made of the state of eruption of each tooth. Eruption of all teeth were delayed at Mikumi relative to the baboon standards derived from the captive animals at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Texas. Teeth of the canine-premolar 3 complex and third molars were most delayed, erupting up to a year and a half later than their counterparts from captive animals. Comparison with data on hamadryas baboons from Erer-Gota in Ethiopia revealed that both the hamadryas and yellow subspecies of baboons, with different genetic backgrounds and living under markedly different environmental conditions, followed the same schedule. This constancy of developmental schedules suggests that these Mikumi data may reasonably be used as standards for other wild baboon populations and that acceleration of dental maturation, as well us maturation of other somatic systems in captivity, is another manifestation of the short-term adaptive plasticity of the baboon species as a whole.     

Changes in behavior in free‐ranging Lemur catta following release in a natural habitat

The adjustment of captive‐reared and developmentally deprived ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta) to supported release on St. Catherine's Island, Georgia, was studied over 7 years to examine if these animals developed behavior comparable to wild populations. Initial changes after release included decreased obesity and increased agility as well as foraging for appropriate novel plants. Ranging, daily behavior cycles, and vocalizations developed more slowly over 1–3 years, but eventually the behavior resembled that of wild groups. Group composition and social structure changed through conflict to resemble wild and captive troops in social organization, including the emergence of matrilineal dominance and male emigration. Since behavior eventually resembled that seen in the wild, some resilience of species‐typical wild behavior in captivity is supported. Am. J. Primatol. 47:15–28, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive environment influences the composition and diversity of fecal microbiota in Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins,Tursiops aduncus

Captive environments impact the microbiota of captive animals; however, the comparison of microbiota between wild and captive dolphins has been poorly investigated. To explore the impact of a captive environment, we characterized the fecal microbiota of nine wild and four captive Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops aduncus, using a next-generation sequencing and revealed differences in the fecal microbiota between the analyzed groups. Statistical differences in abundances of the phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were found between the wild and captive dolphins. Thirty-six genera (22.9% of the total genera detected in all dolphins) were shared between the groups, whereas 79 (50.3%) and 42 (26.8%) genera were found only in the wild or captive dolphins, respectively. Several pathogenic bacterial genera, including Morganella and Mycoplasma, were detected only in the captive dolphins, and the genus Lactobacillus was found only in the wild dolphins. LefSe and SIMPER analyses revealed that the genus Clostridium sensu stricto 1 was significantly more abundant in the captive dolphins than in the wild ones and contributed the most to the dissimilarity of fecal microbiota between the groups. Our results indicate that the captive environment impacts the fecal microbiota of dolphins and reinforces the importance of monitoring potentially pathogenic bacteria in captivity.     

Measuring social tolerance: An experimental approach in two lemurid primates

Social tolerance crucially affects the life of group‐living animals as it can influence, among other things, their competitive regimes, access to food, learning behavior, and recruitment. However, social tolerance tests were mainly conducted in semi‐free or captive populations, and we know little about the behavioral mechanisms and consequences of social tolerance under natural conditions. We therefore developed a co‐feeding experiment to measure social tolerance in groups of wild and captive animals across two primate species. Specifically, we recorded the social tolerance level of redfronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons, four wild, one captive group) and ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta, three wild, three captive groups) by presenting a clumped food resource in an experimental arena, and recorded patterns of resource use during the experiment. Because redfronted lemurs exhibit lower levels of decided conflicts than ringtailed lemurs, we predicted that they would be socially more tolerant. The probability for an individual to feed in the arena was higher in redfronted lemurs than in ringtailed lemurs. In addition, in both species, the probability for an individual to feed in the arena was higher in the captive populations than in their wild counterparts, suggesting that proximate factors, such as a relaxation of feeding competition in captivity, may adapt species‐specific levels of social tolerance to local levels of food availability. Hence, the number of individuals co‐feeding on a valuable food resource appears to be a useful proxy of social tolerance that could be measured with this experimental setup in other wild and captive species as well.     

Effects of high‐ and low‐fiber diets on fecal fermentation and fecal microbial populations of captive chimpanzees

We examined fiber fermentation capacity of captive chimpanzee fecal microflora from animals (n=2) eating low‐fiber diets (LFDs; 14% neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and 5% of cellulose) and high‐fiber diets (HFDs; 26% NDF and 15% of cellulose), using barley grain, meadow hay, wheat straw, and amorphous cellulose as substrates for in vitro gas production of feces. We also examined the effects of LFD or HFD on populations of eubacteria and archaea in chimpanzee feces. Fecal inoculum fermentation from the LFD animals resulted in a higher in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) and gas production than from the HFD animals. However, there was an interaction between different inocula and substrates on IVDMD, gas and methane production, and hydrogen recovery (P<0.001). On the other hand, HFD inoculum increased the production of total short‐chain fatty acids (SCFAs), acetate, and propionate with all tested substrates. The effect of the interaction between the inoculum and substrate on total SCFAs was not observed. Changes in fermentation activities were associated with changes in bacterial populations. DGGE of bacterial DNA revealed shift in population of both archaeal and eubacterial communities. However, a much more complex eubacterial population structure represented by many bands was observed compared with the less variable archaeal population in both diets. Some archaeal bands were related to the uncultured archaea from gastrointestinal tracts of homeothermic animals. Genomic DNA in the dominant eubacterial band in the HFD inoculum was confirmed to be closely related to DNA from Eubacterium biforme. Interestingly, the predominant band in the LFD inoculum represented DNA of probably new or yet‐to‐be‐sequenced species belonging to mycoplasms. Collectively, our results indicated that fecal microbial populations of the captive chimpanzees are not capable of extensive fiber fermentation; however, there was a positive effect of fiber content on SCFA production. Am. J. Primatol. 71:548–557, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Annual pattern of fecal corticoid excretion in captive Red-tailed parrots (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Amazona brasiliensis</Emphasis>)

Annual patterns of fecal corticoid excretion were analyzed in the threatened Red-tailed parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) in captivity. Corticoid concentration over the 15 months of the study (mean ± standard error, 12.6 ± 0.32 ng g⁻¹, n = 585) was lowest around May (the southern Fall), and greatest around September (late winter), just prior to their normal breeding period. Corticoid excretion follows a seasonal pattern best explained by reproductive cycles rather than climate, although climate may be involved in the timing of corticoid excretion. Fecal corticoids also show promise as a tool to measure stress levels. We demonstrate that fecal corticoid measurement is a simple, yet efficient method for monitoring adrenocortical activity in captive, and perhaps wild, parrots. Monitoring adrenocortical activity can inform researchers about imposed stress in captivity, whether pair-bonds are forming in captive birds, and of the timing of breeding both in captivity and in nature.