Development of a wheelchair-mounted folding standing frame

Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is capable of providing standing function to certain mid-thoracic paraplegics following spinal injury. To be of use in the community such systems require the provision of a mechanical support attached to the user's wheelchair so that it is available for use at all times. The design specification was such that the frame should fit a wide range of wheelchairs, not increase the external dimensions of the wheelchair, be easily removed to enable transfers, provide a safe, stable support once erect and be quick and simple both to erect and to fold away. Although primarily designed for use as part of the FES standing system, the frame is also applicable for patients with a number of other chronic neurological or arthritic conditions. As such the specification has been extended so that the design is suitable for users with tremor or reduced upper limb function.     

Optimal combination of minimum degrees of freedom to be actuated in the lower limbs to facilitate arm-free paraplegic standing

Arm-free paraplegic standing via functional electrical stimulation (FES) has drawn much attention in the biomechanical field as it might allow a paraplegic to stand and simultaneously use both arms to perform daily activities. However, current FES systems for standing require that the individual actively regulates balance using one or both arms, thus limiting the practical use of these systems. The purpose of the present study was to show that actuating only six out of 12 degrees of freedom (12-DOFs) in the lower limbs to allow paraplegics to stand freely is theoretically feasible with respect to multibody stability and physiological torque limitations of the lower limb DOF. Specifically, the goal was to determine the optimal combination of the minimum DOF that can be realistically actuated using FES while ensuring stability and able-bodied kinematics during perturbed arm-free standing. The human body was represented by a three-dimensional dynamics model with 12-DOFs in the lower limbs. Nakamura's method (Nakamura, Y., and Ghodoussi, U., 1989, "Dynamics Computation of Closed-Link Robot Mechanisms With Nonredundant and Redundant Actuators," IEEE Trans. Rob. Autom., 5(3), pp. 294-302) was applied to estimate the joint torques of the system using experimental motion data from four healthy subjects. The torques were estimated by applying our previous finding that only 6 (6-DOFs) out of 12-DOFs in the lower limbs need to be actuated to facilitate stable standing. Furthermore, it was shown that six cases of 6-DOFs exist, which facilitate stable standing. In order to characterize each of these cases in terms of the torque generation patterns and to identify a potential optimal 6-DOF combination, the joint torques during perturbations in eight different directions were estimated for all six cases of 6-DOFs. The results suggest that the actuation of both ankle flexionextension, both knee flexionextension, one hip flexionextension, and one hip abductionadduction DOF will result in the minimum torque requirements to regulate balance during perturbed standing. To facilitate unsupported FES-assisted standing, it is sufficient to actuate only 6-DOFs. An optimal combination of 6-DOFs exists, for which this system can generate able-bodied kinematics while requiring lower limb joint torques that are producible using contemporary FES technology. These findings suggest that FES-assisted arm-free standing of paraplegics is theoretically feasible, even when limited by the fact that muscles actuating specific DOFs are often denervated or difficult to access.     

Above- and below-lesion EMG pattern mapping for controlling electrical stimulation of paraplegics to facilitate unbraced walker-assisted walking

We describe and evaluate above- and below-lesion EMG control of functional electrical stimulation (FES) in upper motor neuron paraplegics, in order to provide them with a patient-responsive system for walking with a walker support. Control is considered in terms of a combination of above-lesion EMG control and below-lesion response-EMG control. The above-lesion EMG is used to control the activation of limb functions involved in standing up and walking with FES, control being accomplished by analysing raw surface-EMG time-series patterns to discriminate between upper-trunk muscle contraction patterns, which in turn, are correlated with intended lower-limb functions involved in walking, so that natural and instinctive balance changes in paraplegics are controlled by the patient from above the lesion. The below-lesion response-EMG is the EMG produced in response to the FES pulses at the stimulation sites, for adjusting stimulation levels as needed when contractions weaken due to muscle fatigue. Above-lesion EMG is a stochastic (random-like) signal, being a response to unsynchronized motor neuron firings, whereas the below-lesion EMG is a deterministic signal responding to synchronized firings that result solely from the FES pulses. We also discuss the merits and difficulties of EMG control, and evaluate patient performance under such control, noting that FES-activated walking without adequate and patient-responsive control is of very limited use to paraplegics.     

Standards for biodiversity: a proposal based on biodiversity standards for forest plantations

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has not only focused attention on the concept of biodiversity it has also set expectations that the signatory nations will establish objectives. It is suggested here that the use of biodiversity standards could have a useful role in quantifying these objectives. The use of biodiversity standards is explored in connection with the levels of biodiversity In plantation forests. Forest plantations have been used for the basis of this investigation because such plantations could be used as large-scale experiments in which the use of standards, and the ecological monitoring of these standards, could be researched. The impact of intensive forestry practices on wildlife has often been the cause of concern and indeed controversy. Recently there has been a move towards the development of multipurpose forest plantations where management for recreation and wildlife takes place alongside management for timber. Some forest authorities are actively looking at ways of restoring levels of biodiversity in plantation forests. We suggest that if levels of biodiversity are to be restored, then forest managers must have something to aim for; that is, there must be a standard. The adoption of standards could provide a means whereby forest managers can meet biodiversity objectives. Standards may also enable managers to determine the effectiveness of those management practices which are intended to increase levels of biodiversity. We suggest a conceptual plan which combines a monitoring procedure with biodiversity objectives.     

Advancing global change biology through experimental manipulations: Where have we been and where might we go?

This commentary summarizes the publication history of Global Change Biology for works on experimental manipulations over the past 25 years and highlights a number of key publications. The retrospective summary is then followed by some thoughts on the future of experimental work as it relates to mechanistic understanding and methodological needs. Experiments for elevated CO₂ atmospheres and anticipated warming scenarios which take us beyond historical analogs are suggested as future priorities. Disturbance is also highlighted as a key agent of global change. Because experiments are demanding of both personnel effort and limited fiscal resources, the allocation of experimental investments across Earth's biomes should be done in ecosystems of key importance. Uncertainty analysis and broad community consultation should be used to identify research questions and target biomes that will yield substantial gains in predictive confidence and societal relevance. A full range of methodological approaches covering small to large spatial scales will continue to be justified as a source of mechanistic understanding. Nevertheless, experiments operating at larger spatial scales encompassing organismal, edaphic, and environmental diversity of target ecosystems are favored, as they allow for the assessment of long‐term biogeochemical feedbacks enabling a full range of questions to be addressed. Such studies must also include adequate investment in measurements of key interacting variables (e.g., water and nutrient availability and budgets) to enable mechanistic understanding of responses and to interpret context dependency. Integration of ecosystem‐scale manipulations with focused process‐based manipulations, networks, and large‐scale observations will aid more complete understanding of ecosystem responses, context dependence, and the extrapolation of results. From the outset, these studies must be informed by and integrated with ecosystem models that provide quantitative predictions from their embedded mechanistic hypotheses. A true two‐way interaction between experiments and models will simultaneously increase the rate and robustness of Global Change research.     

A study of deleterious gene structure in plants using Markov chain Monte Carlo

The characteristics of deleterious genes have been of great interest in both theory and practice in genetics. Because of the complex genetic mechanism of these deleterious genes, most current studies try to estimate the overall magnitude of mortality effects on a population, which is characterized classically by the number of lethal equivalents. This number is a combination of several parameters, each of which has a distinct biological effect on genetic mortality. In conservation and breeding programs, it is important to be able to distinguish among different combinations of these parameters that lead to the same number of lethal equivalents, such as a large number of mildly deleterious genes or a few lethal genes, The ability to distinguish such parameter combinations requires more than one generation of mating. We propose a model for survival data from a two-generation mating experiment on the plant species Brassica rapa, and we enable inference with Markov chain Monte Carlo. This computational strategy is effective because a vast amount of missing genotype information must be accounted for. In addition to the lethal equivalents, the two-generation data provide separate information on the average intensity of mortality and the average number of deleterious genes carried by an individual. In our Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm, we use a vector proposal distribution to overcome inefficiency of a single-site Gibbs sampler. Information about environmental effects is obtained from an outcrossing experiment conducted in parallel with the two-generation mating experiments.     

Computer-controlled portable stimulator for paraplegic patients

A six-channel lightweight, portable and computer-controlled stimulator for the functional activation of paraplegic patients is described. To enable programming of the various functions, the stimulator was designed to work in a remote-control mode hosted by an IBM PC or compatible computer, in addition to its normally used local mode. The stimulus parameters, including current intensity, stimulus frequency and pulse width, are individually adjustable and programmable for each channel. The power source is 12 V 500 mAh⁻¹, from 10 rechargeable nickel cadmium batteries, with a run time of 1.5 h for a load of 200 mA in four channels. Various training programmes for the activation of paraplegics in the sitting, standing and walking positions are described. The final design of the stimulator is based on experience gained from 25 patients, treated and evaluated during the course of development. Ongoing work including clinical, biomechanical and physiological studies is carried out to evaluate performance of the activated patients and to optimize stimulation.     

Switching from monoculture to polyculture farming benefits birds in oil palm production landscapes: Evidence from mist netting data

Monoculture farming is pervasive in industrial oil palm agriculture, including those RSPO plantations certified as sustainably managed. This farming practice does not promote the maintenance of farmland biodiversity. However, little scientific attention has been given to polyculture farming in oil palm production landscapes. Polyculture farming is likely to increase the floristic diversity and stand structural complexity that underpins biodiversity. Mist nets were used to sample birds at 120 smallholdings in Peninsular Malaysia. At each site, 12 vegetation structure characteristics were measured. We compared bird species richness, abundance, and composition between monoculture and polyculture smallholdings and used predictive models to examine the effects of habitat quality on avian biodiversity. Bird species richness was significantly greater in polyculture than that of monoculture smallholdings. The number of fallen and standing, dead oil palms were also important positive predictors of species richness. Bird abundance was also strongly increased by standing and dead oil palms and decreased with oil palm stand height. Our results indicate that polyculture farming can improve bird species richness in oil palm production landscapes. In addition, key habitat variables that are closely associated with farming practices, such as the removal of dead trees, should and can be managed by oil palm growers in order to promote biodiversity. To increase the sustainability of oil palm agriculture, it is imperative that stakeholders modify the way oil palms are currently planted and managed. Our findings can guide policy makers and certification bodies to promote oil palm production landscapes that will function more sustainably and increase existing biodiversity of oil palm landscapes.     

Minimal output sets for identifiability

Ordinary differential equation models in biology often contain a large number of parameters that must be determined from measurements by parameter estimation. For a parameter estimation procedure to be successful, there must be a unique set of parameters that can have produced the measured data. This is not the case if a model is not uniquely structurally identifiable with the given set of outputs selected as measurements. In designing an experiment for the purpose of parameter estimation, given a set of feasible but resource-consuming measurements, it is useful to know which ones must be included in order to obtain an identifiable system, or whether the system is unidentifiable from the feasible measurement set. We have developed an algorithm that, from a user-provided set of variables and parameters or functions of them assumed to be measurable or known, determines all subsets that when used as outputs give a locally structurally identifiable system and are such that any output set for which the system is structurally identifiable must contain at least one of the calculated subsets. The algorithm has been implemented in Mathematica and shown to be feasible and efficient. We have successfully applied it in the analysis of large signalling pathway models from the literature.     

Reduction through education: the insight of a trainer

One of the articles contained within European Council Directive 86/609/EEC states that "Persons who carry out experiments or take part in them, and persons who take care of animals used for experiments, including duties of a supervisory nature, shall have appropriate training". In effect, this article stipulates that only competent individuals are allowed to work with laboratory animals. At least three groups of individuals can be identified with different responsibilities toward experimental animals: animal technicians, scientists, and veterinarians/animal welfare officers. The responsibilities and duties of the individuals within each of these categories differ. This paper focuses on the training of scientists. The scientist designs, and often also performs, animal experiments. Therefore, scientists must be educated to develop an attitude of respect toward laboratory animals, and must be trained so that, if an experiment must be performed with animals, it is designed according to the highest possible scientific and ethical standards. In The Netherlands, the law stipulates that scientists intending to work with animals must have completed a course in laboratory animal science. This compulsory course started in 1986. The Department of Laboratory Animal Science at Utrecht University is responsible for the national coordination of this course. Participants must have an academic degree (at the level of MSc) in one of the biomedical sciences, such as biology, medicine or veterinary medicine. Although the course is an intensive 3-week, 120-hour long course, which covers both technical and ethical aspects of laboratory animal experimentation, it cannot provide full competence. It is designed to provide sufficient basic training and knowledge to enable students to design animal experiments, and to develop an attitude that will be conducive to the implementation of the Three Rs. However, full competence will always require further training that can only be acquired as a result of practical experience gained while working in the field of laboratory animal research. Evaluations subsequent to the course have revealed that more than 98% of the students regard the course as indispensable for all scientists working in a research area where animal experiments are performed. They agree that the course not only contributes to the quality of experiments and to the welfare of animals, but also to a decrease in the number of animals used in experiments.     

Unlocking the potential of Google Earth as a tool in invasion science

Distribution data are central to many invasion science applications. The shortage of good information on the distribution of alien species and their spatial dynamics is largely attributable to the cost, effort and expertise required to monitor these species over large areas. Virtual globes, particularly Google Earth, are free and user-friendly software which provide high-resolution aerial imagery for the entire globe. We suggest this has enormous potential for invasion science. We provide suggestions and tools for gathering data on the distribution and abundance of invasive alien trees using visual interpretation of Google Earth imagery, and propose how these data may be used for a number of purposes, including calculating useful metrics of invasions, prioritising species or areas for management and predicting potential distributions of species. We also suggest various practical uses of Google Earth, such as providing a tool for early detection of emerging invasions, monitoring invasions over time, and to help researchers and managers identify suitable field study sites. Virtual globes such as Google Earth are not without limitations and we provide guidance on how some of these can be overcome, or when imagery from Google Earth may not be fit for invasion science purposes. Because of Google Earth’s huge popularity and ease of use, we also highlight possibilities for awareness-raising and information sharing that it provides. Finally, we provide the foundations and guidelines for a virtual global network of sentinel sites for early detection, monitoring and data gathering of invasive alien trees, which we propose should be developed as part of a “citizen science” effort. There has been limited use of virtual globes by invasion scientists and managers; it is our hope that this paper will stimulate their greater use, both within the field of invasion science and within ecology generally.     

A Coalescent Model for a Sweep of a Unique Standing Variant

The use of genetic polymorphism data to understand the dynamics of adaptation and identify the loci that are involved has become a major pursuit of modern evolutionary genetics. In addition to the classical “hard sweep” hitchhiking model, recent research has drawn attention to the fact that the dynamics of adaptation can play out in a variety of different ways and that the specific signatures left behind in population genetic data may depend somewhat strongly on these dynamics. One particular model for which a large number of empirical examples are already known is that in which a single derived mutation arises and drifts to some low frequency before an environmental change causes the allele to become beneficial and sweeps to fixation. Here, we pursue an analytical investigation of this model, bolstered and extended via simulation study. We use coalescent theory to develop an analytical approximation for the effect of a sweep from standing variation on the genealogy at the locus of the selected allele and sites tightly linked to it. We show that the distribution of haplotypes that the selected allele is present on at the time of the environmental change can be approximated by considering recombinant haplotypes as alleles in the infinite-alleles model. We show that this approximation can be leveraged to make accurate predictions regarding patterns of genetic polymorphism following such a sweep. We then use simulations to highlight which sources of haplotypic information are likely to be most useful in distinguishing this model from neutrality, as well as from other sweep models, such as the classic hard sweep and multiple-mutation soft sweeps. We find that in general, adaptation from a unique standing variant will likely be difficult to detect on the basis of genetic polymorphism data from a single population time point alone, and when it can be detected, it will be difficult to distinguish from other varieties of selective sweeps. Samples from multiple populations and/or time points have the potential to ease this difficulty.     

Structure and functioning of Miscanthus sinensis grassland in Sugadaira,Central Japan

To be able to deseribe the structure and functioning of Miscanthus sinensis grassland, its floristie composition, life-form spectra, stand productivity and dry matter allocation were studied. 43 species were to be found during the growing season of 1976. 29 species, and 345 individuals per 1 m², were observed in the sample areas in September. The values for standing crop of constituent species have been arranged in ascending order. The dominant Raunkiaer life-forms were the hemicryptophyte and geophyte. The stand was characterized by erect and tufted forms in Numata's system of growth form classification. The standing crop of the whole stand decreased from April to June, then increased from mid-July. The maximum standing crop of 3346 g m^-2was observed in September. The net production of the stand was 959.4 g m^-2year^-1. Fifty one percent of this net production was allocated to the underground organs which consume it for respiration during winter and for initial growth in the next growing season.     

Ecological indicators of fruit and vegetable consumption (EIFVCs): A case study

Food and drink consumption was found to be responsible for around 20–30% of environmental impacts. Environmental impacts occur during all stages of the food production chain. However, households influence these impacts with through their choice of diet and habits, thus directly affecting the environment through food-related energy consumption and waste generation. With the multiplication of local policies for sustainable consumption, it has become increasingly useful to gather information on the evolution of the ecological impacts associated with household food consumption. Dealing with the indicators of household consumption of fruits and vegetables will enable changes in the population's lifestyles and the effectiveness of local policies to be monitored.The aims of this article are twofold: to provide a conceptual framework on the purposes of ecological indicators of fruit and vegetable consumption (EIFVCs) and to provide a methodological approach for selecting and measuring the most relevant EIFVCs at a local scale. Considering the great diversity of ecological impacts, the large number of potential EIFVCs must be reduced to obtain fewer EIFVCs, but that are relevant at local scale. To be relevant, the EIFVCs must provide information on the three phases of consumption (acquisition, use, and disposal) and on the upstream and downstream phases of the consumption process; they should evaluate the more problematic ecological impacts at the local scale (level of concern); and they have to only point out the ecological impacts that households can significantly reduce through their consumption rates. To measure relevant EIFVCs, three approaches must be combined: monitoring the ecological impacts, measuring the material and energy fluxes associated with household consumption, and analysing the consumer behaviours that result in the observed ecological impacts.As an illustration, the methodology is applied to the Bordeaux Metropolitan Area (France). In this area, eleven EIFVCs seem relevant. The use of surveys characterises all eleven of the EIFVCs, despite the difficulty of establishing quantified relationships between household behaviours and measured ecological impacts. The measuring of fluxes is possible for eight of them, whereas the monitoring of ecological impacts is only feasible for two of them.     

A scientific and animal welfare assessment of the OECD Health Effects Test Guidelines for the safety testing of chemicals under the European Union REACH system

We have assessed each of the OECD Health Effects Test Guidelines (TGs) that were included in an annex to the Internet consultation issued by the European Commission relating to the Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) legislation for the testing of new and existing chemical substances. Each guideline has been analysed with respect to its design and its scientific and animal welfare implications, the extent to which it makes use of modern techniques, and its suitability to be used in the REACH system for the testing of large numbers of chemicals. The scientific basis of the test and its justification are considered, as well as the numbers of animals required, and the potential adverse effects on them. The prospects and possibilities for applying the Three Rs (reduction, refinement and replacement) to each of the TGs are also discussed. We have proposed an overall testing strategy for how these TGs and other methods could best be deployed for chemicals testing, should it be necessary to fill data gaps. Certain TGs have been omitted from the strategy, when we have considered them to be unnecessary for chemicals testing. A series of recommendations has been made for improving the TGs with regard to both their scientific content and ways in which they could be better designed in relation to optimising the use of the animals concerned, and minimising adverse welfare consequences to them. Our investigations show that there is an urgent need to update the TGs to reflect modern techniques and methods, and to use current approaches for applying refinement strategies to improve the scientific and animal welfare aspects of the procedures used. Improvements can and should be made in all aspects of toxicity testing, from sample preparation, and animal housing, care and feeding, to dose formulation, test material administration, and the histopathological and clinical analysis of tissue samples. Opportunities for streamlining individual assays are very limited, but testing could be made more efficient by: a) only undertaking studies that provide relevant data; b) making greater use of screens and preliminary testing; c) applying some tests simultaneously to the same animals; d) using one sex; and e) eliminating redundant tests. In conclusion, it is clear that, as they stand, the OECD Health Effects TGs are unsuitable for use in the European Union REACH system, for which potentially very large numbers of laboratory animals will be needed for the testing of a very large number of chemicals.     

Le traitement actuel de l’impuissance chez le paraplégique

The author is summing up his 25 years experience in the treatment of paraplegics impotency to account for the present and almost continuous resulting use of self injections of vasoactive drugs. The sexual reeducation, based on the neurological level, that is to say on the physiopathology, has disappeared for 10 years, as the urinary reeducation has been replaced by self catheterism. Nevertheless, there are some education rules left for the paraplegics and the couple in the relationship as well as in the technique. Trying to obtain orgasm for the paraplegics has become a priority, since the erection is obtained easily through drugs. A reference is made to the vasoactive drugs that have been used and their effects. The behaviour is precise somewhat different in the case of the traumatic and total paraplegics as compared to the partial medical paraplegics (cauda equina, spina bifida, multiple sclerosis…) for whom psychology is different. The sensitivity deficiencies which are the same for all of them mustn’t make us forget that there are still reflex erogeneous spots that must be searched for.     

Helium: visualization of large scale plant pedigrees

Background

Plant breeders use an increasingly diverse range of data types to identify lines with desirable characteristics suitable to be taken forward in plant breeding programmes. There are a number of key morphological and physiological traits, such as disease resistance and yield that need to be maintained and improved upon if a commercial variety is to be successful. Computational tools that provide the ability to integrate and visualize this data with pedigree structure, will enable breeders to make better decisions on the lines that are used in crossings to meet both the demands for increased yield/production and adaptation to climate change.

Results

We have used a large and unique set of experimental barley (H. vulgare) data to develop a prototype pedigree visualization system. We then used this prototype to perform a subjective user evaluation with domain experts to guide and direct the development of an interactive pedigree visualization tool called Helium.

Conclusions

We show that Helium allows users to easily integrate a number of data types along with large plant pedigrees to offer an integrated environment in which they can explore pedigree data. We have also verified that users were happy with the abstract representation of pedigrees that we have used in our visualization tool.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2105-15-259) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

A scientific and animal welfare assessment of the OECD Health Effects Test Guidelines for the safety testing of chemicals under the European Union REACH system

We have assessed each of the OECD Health Effects Test Guidelines (TGs) that were included in an annex to the Internet consultation issued by the European Commission relating to the Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) legislation for the testing of new and existing chemical substances. Each guideline has been analysed with respect to its design and its scientific and animal welfare implications, the extent to which it makes use of modern techniques, and its suitability to be used in the REACH system for the testing of large numbers of chemicals. The scientific basis of the test and its justification are considered, as well as the numbers of animals required, and the potential adverse effects on them. The prospects and possibilities for applying the Three Rs (reduction, refinement and replacement) to each of the TGs are also discussed. We have proposed an overall testing strategy for how these TGs and other methods could best be deployed for chemicals testing, should it be necessary to fill data gaps. Certain TGs have been omitted from the strategy, when we have considered them to be unnecessary for chemicals testing. A series of recommendations has been made for improving the TGs with regard to both their scientific content and ways in which they could be better designed in relation to optimising the use of the animals concerned, and minimising adverse welfare consequences to them. Our investigations show that there is an urgent need to update the TGs to reflect modern techniques and methods, and to use current approaches for applying refinement strategies to improve the scientific and animal welfare aspects of the procedures used. Improvements can and should be made in all aspects of toxicity testing, from sample preparation, and animal housing, care and feeding, to dose formulation, test material administration, and the histopathological and clinical analysis of tissue samples. Opportunities for streamlining individual assays are very limited, but testing could be made more efficient by: a) only undertaking studies that provide relevant data; b) making greater use of screens and preliminary testing; c) applying some tests simultaneously to the same animals; d) using one sex; and e) eliminating redundant tests. In conclusion, it is clear that, as they stand, the OECD Health Effects TGs are unsuitable for use in the European Union REACH system, for which potentially very large numbers of laboratory animals will be needed for the testing of a very large number of chemicals.     

Current topics in clinical FES in Japan

This paper reviews recent topics of clinical application of functional electrical stimulation (FES) for the paralyzed extremities in Japan. Transcutaneous and percutaneous FES systems have been clinically used in Japan. Candidates of extremity FES arer mostly stroke and spinal cord injury patients. By using percutaneous FES system, all of the joints of the upper extremity including the shoulder have been controlled for activities of daily living in the hemiplegic patient. Simultaneous FES control of the hand and wrist and the bilateral hands have also been achieved in C5 and C6 quadriplegics, respectively. Hybrid FES systems using percutaneous and surface electrodes, where FES is used in combination with orthoses, have been applied to the paraplegics because they are highly practical for assisting their locomotive activities. Percutaneous FES have been also provided the amyotropic lateral sclerosis patients with standing up motion. A total implant FES system with 16 output channels is currently developing as a next generation FES system.     

Ecology in the university first year?

The inclusion of ecology in first-year university biology courses presents considerable difficulties. The new course being evolved at Bath centres round three main themes—spatial distribution, the flow of energy, and the gene as an element of continuity. Practical work presents particular problems on account of the large number of students and a lack of time. The difficulty can be overcome to some extent by the use of simulation experiments which aim to reproduce in miniature within the laboratory certain restricted aspects of the real environment. Bearing in mind that, at most, only one visit to a natural habitat will be possible, it is important that full use should be made of good visual aids such as films and slides. Facilities must also be provided for students to check their own progress through problems derived from second-hand sources such as research papers.