Monitoring defensive responses in macroalgae – limitations and perspectives

As part of an ongoing research program aiming at monitoring molecular changes in the tissues and metabolite trafficking in the hydrosphere of algae subjected to chemical stresses, we are discussing the various analytical techniques that have been employed to characterize, and sometimes to quantity these metabolites. High-field multinuclear and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopies are powerful tools for metabolite characterization from extracts and in vivo, but quantification and kinetic aspects show some limitations. Modern MS (mass spectrometry) is extremely useful for fingerprinting samples against databases and when dealing with very low concentrations of metabolites, the limitations being set by the type of chromatographic separation and mode of detection coupled with the mass spectrometer. Regarding chemical communication, optimization in terms of resolution and efficiency of hydrosphere chemical analysis can theoretically be achieved in a system which integrates (i) a multiparametric incubation chamber, (ii) a gasphase or a liquid-phase separation system and (iii) mass spectrometer(s) equipped with one or two detectors responding to the analytical and quantitative needs. This text reviews some of the techniques that have been employed in various types of plant metabolic studies, which may serve as a basis towards an integrative analytical strategy directly applicable to the metabolomics of selected marine macrophytes.     

Assessing release protocols for Canada lynx reintroduction in colorado

Reintroductions are a common strategy to restore ecosystem integrity, especially when top predators are involved. Reintroductions are often time consuming, expensive, and controversial, and thus understanding what aspects are important for a successful program is needed. Focusing on the example of the reintroduction of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) to Colorado, we investigated how different release protocols (RP) affected mortality within the first year post-release. We found that average monthly mortality in the study area during the first year decreased with time in captivity from 0.205 (95% CI = 0.069, 0.475) for lynx having spent up to 7 days in captivity to 0.028 (95% CI = 0.012, 0.064) for lynx spending >45 days in captivity before release. Our results also suggest that keeping lynx in captivity beyond 5–6 weeks accrued little benefit in terms of monthly survival. We found that, on a monthly average basis, lynx were as likely to move out (P = 0.196, SE = 0.032) as well as back onto (P = 0.143, SE = 0.034) the reintroduction area during the first year after release. Mortality was 1.6 times greater outside of the study area, suggesting that permanent emigration and differential mortality rates on and off reintroduction areas should be factored into sample size calculations for an effective reintroduction effort. A post-release monitoring plan is critical to providing information to assess aspects of RP and to improve survival of individuals. Future lynx and other carnivore reintroductions may use our results to help design reintroduction programs including both the release and post-release monitoring protocols. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Quality assurance of biological monitoring in occupational and environmental medicine

Biological monitoring of chemical exposure in the workplace has become increasingly important in the assessment of health risk as an integral part of the overall occupational health and safety strategy. In environmental medicine biological monitoring plays also an important role in the assessment of excessive, acute or chronic exposure to chemical agents. To guarantee that the results obtained in biological monitoring are comparable with threshold limit values and results from other laboratories, the analysis must be carried out with tested and reliable analytical methods and accompanied by a quality assurance scheme. Confounding influences and interferences during the pre-analytical phase can be minimised by recommendations from experienced laboratories. For internal quality control commercially available control samples with an assigned concentration are used. External quality control programs for biological monitoring are offered by several institutions. The external quality control program of the German Society of Occupational and Environmental Medicine has been organised since 1982. In the meantime the 27th program has been carried out offering 96 analytes in urine, blood and plasma for 47 substances. This program covers most of the parameters relevant to occupational and environmental medicine. About 350 laboratories take part in these intercomparison programs. At present, ten German and 14 international laboratories are commissioned to determine the assigned values. The data evaluated from the results of the intercomparison programs give a good overview of the current quality of the determination of analytes assessed in occupational and environmental toxicological laboratories. For the analysis of inorganic substances in blood and urine the tolerable variation ranges from 7.5 to 43.5%. For organic substances in urine the tolerable variation ranges from 12 to 48%. The highest variations (36-60%) were found for the analysis of organochlorine compounds in plasma. The tolerable variations for the determination of solvents in blood by head space gas chromatography range from 26 to 57%. If the recommendations for the pre-analytical phase, the selection of reliable analytical methods by the laboratory and the carrying out of adequate quality control are observed, the pre-requisites for reliable findings during biological monitoring are fulfilled     

Resistance of the fall armyworm,Spodoptera frugiperda,to transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1F corn in the Americas: lessons and implications for Bt corn IRM in China

The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), is a major target pest of Bt crops (e.g., corn, cotton, and soybean) in North and South America. This pest has recently invaded Africa and Asia including China and the invasion has placed a great threat to the food security in many countries of these two continents. Due to the extensive use of Bt crops, practical resistance of S. frugiperda to Cry1F corn (TC 1507) with field control problems has widely occurred in Puerto Rico, Brazil, Argentina, and the mainland United States. Analyzing data generated from decade-long studies showed that several factors might have contributed to the wide development of the resistance. These factors include (1) limited modes of action of Bt proteins used in Bt crops; (2) cross-resistance among Cry1 proteins; (3) use of nonhigh dose Bt crop traits; (4) that the resistance is complete on Bt corn plants; (5) abundant in initial Cry1F resistance alleles; and (6) lack of fitness costs/recessive fitness costs of the resistance. The long-term use of Bt crop technology in the Americas suggests that Bt corn can be an effective tool for controlling S. frugiperda in China. IRM programs for Bt corn in China should be as simple as possible to be easily adopted by small-scale growers. The following aspects may be considered in its Bt corn IRM programs: (1) use of only “high dose” traits for both S. frugiperda and stalk borers; (2) developing and implementing a combined resistance monitoring program; (3) use “gene pyramiding” as a primary IRM strategy; and (4) if possible, Bt corn may not be planted in the areas where S. frugiperda overwinters. Lessons and experience gained from the global long-term use of Bt crops should have values in improving IRM programs in the Americas, as well as for a sustainable use of Bt corn technology in China.     

Ecological theory meets soil ecotoxicology: Challenge and chance

The degradation of soils due to various anthropogenic stress factors is alarming. Although chemicals are a major reason for soil degradation, most ecologists are not interested in studying such effects. We try to wake their interest by addressing a number of unsolved soil ecotoxicological problems that are related to disturbance ecology, biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and modelling. Features distinguishing chemical from natural stress render promising new aspects in disturbance ecology. Ecotoxicological studies are ideal models of disturbance, particularly regarding frequency, intensity or multitude of stress. Patterns of secondary succession after a major chemical damage can directly be related to the intermediate disturbance hypothesis. More knowledge on altered life history patterns following stress could support both evolutionary ecology and risk assessment. We raise the question if inherent resource competition makes communities more vulnerable to stress. Three aspects of ecotoxicological risk assessment are introduced: (1) exposure and bioavailability, which is directly connected to environmental heterogeneity; (2) tests on ecosystem functioning, suffering from major drawbacks; and (3) modelling. Here, promising approaches exist but need substantial input for being applicable to soils. Ecological modelling should put more emphasis on simulating both natural and chemical disturbances, including behavioural aspects and environmental variability. Finally, research needs for ecological risk assessment in soils are derived such as a simple system to assess the impact of chemicals on soil biodiversity, the inclusion of behavioural changes of keystone species or the consideration of density-dependent effects. Common research efforts of basic ecologists and soil ecotoxicologists could render a lot of mutual benefits.     

Assessment of the efficiency of different control programs to reduce Trioza apicalis Först. (Triozidae: Hemiptera) feeding damage and the spread of “Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum” on carrots (Daucus carota ssp. sativus L.)

The control of carrot psyllid Trioza apicalis Förster largely relies on chemical measures, and the current integrated pest management (IPM) strategy is based on pest scouting. The number of active ingredients available for psyllid control will further decline in the coming years. The need for alternative control measures is therefore urgent. In this work the efficiency of different control programs including a kaolin particle film and plant-derived, crude saponin extract, chemical control, insect net and IPM (kaolin in combination with insecticides) programs to reduce psyllid feeding damage, reproduction and the spread of “Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum” (CLso) in carrots was studied. Each year in 2016–2018, four replicates of each treatment were randomised in a row-column design on a commercial carrot farm. After the treatments were executed, the psyllid nymphs and eggs were counted. At the harvest, the carrot roots and shoots were weighed, damages assessed, and samples were taken for CLso detection from 50 plants at each replicate. Kaolin treatment alone and in combination with insecticides effectively reduced the number of psyllid nymphs and eggs in all the years studied. Saponin was applied only on the first year, since it significantly increased the number of T. apicalis eggs compared to other treatments. The insect net was superior to other treatments in all the studied aspects in all the years. Under normal weather conditions, the highest root weight was harvested under the insect net, followed by the chemical control program consisting of pyrethroids, kaolin treatment, untreated control and saponin treatment. During extreme weather conditions, chemical control programs were not effective at protecting the carrots from psyllid feeding, which was reflected as low root yield. In all years, the carrot leaf damage percent negatively correlated with the root weight. Similarly, the shoot:root ratio increased as the leaf-curling percentage rose, which was even pronounced under drought stress. The effect of climatic stress should be considered when developing IPM strategies.     

Marine mammal culling programs: review of effects on predator and prey populations

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Initial verification of the resistance management strategy for Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in Australia

Shortly after the initial detection of western flower thrips (WFT), Frankiniella occidentalis (Pergande), in Australia during 1993 a resistance management strategy based on the alternation of chemical groups was implemented. This study aimed to verify this strategy by field testing α-cypermethrin against WFT with and without chemical alternation. Up to 114 times α-cypermethrin resistance (at LC50) was detected and resistance increased with and without chemical alternation; however, chemical alternation did significantly reduce numbers of thrips compared with a nonalternation strategy. Resistance has the potential to undermine the sustainable use of those chemicals to which there is no current detectable resistance. Consequently, chemicals with a high frequency and level of resistance against WFT need to be identified through monitoring and quickly eliminated from WFT chemical control recommendations.     

Evaluating where and how habitat restoration is undertaken for animals

Habitat restoration is vital to ameliorate the effects of anthropogenic disturbances on animal habitats. We reviewed the peer‐reviewed literature to examine where and how habitat restoration is undertaken. Our aim was to identify key knowledge gaps as well as research and monitoring needs that can inform future restoration actions. We found: (1) marine and terrestrial actions focus most commonly on restoring vegetation, and freshwater actions focus on restoring the in‐channel habitat; (2) arthropods are the most common focal group; (3) there is often no collection of pre‐restoration data, so certainty in attributing environmental changes to restoration actions is limited; and (4) population and community measures are most commonly used in monitoring programs, which only show if animals are present at restored sites and not whether they are able to grow, survive, and reproduce. We highlight three important considerations for future restoration actions. First, more integration of knowledge among freshwater, marine, and terrestrial systems will help us to understand how, and why, restoration outcomes might vary in different contexts. Second, where possible, restoration projects should be assessed using before‐after‐control‐impact designs, which will provide the strongest evidence if desired restoration responses occur. Third, if the goal of restoration is to develop self‐sustaining breeding populations of target animals, then measures of fitness (i.e. breeding, survival) should be collected. These recommendations will hopefully help guide more effective restoration practices and monitoring in the future.     

生物物种资源监测原则与指标及抽样设计方法

生物物种资源监测是了解生物物种资源现状、开展生物物种资源保护与管理的基础工作和重要手段.阐述了生物物种资源监测的科学性原则、可操作性原则和持续性原则.提出了监测计划的制定程序;监测计划应充分考虑所具有的人力、资金和后勤保障等条件,并进行定期评估.分析了指示物种在物种资源监测中的作用与不足;认为应选择具有不同生态需求和生活史的生物类群作为监测对象.讨论了监测指标的选取方法;监测指标应可测量、有科学基础、易被公众接受、低成本和高效益;监测方法应具有科学性,能检测到相应的变化,应采用高效率、低成本的标准化监测方法.分析了现有监测计划在抽样设计方面存在的问题,探讨了空间变异性和可检测率对监测数据误差的影响及其处理方式,讨论了样本量确定和监测样地的大小、形状及位置设计.监测样地要有较好的代表性,能在有限的监测面积中较好地反映监测区域内群落种类组成与数量特征.最后,讨论了生物物种资源监测的尺度和标准化问题.     

信息化学物质在害虫监测中的应用

种群监测是害虫种群预测与防治决策制定中十分重要的环节,而利用信息化学物质进行昆虫成虫种群监测,与其他各虫态或寄主被害率等的抽样调查方法相比,具有简便、省工、费用低、具种特异性、在低虫口密度下灵敏、监测范围广等特点。信息化学物质的应用主要包括昆虫种类和分布区检测、害虫发生期监测和发生量或为害水平监测。前两个方面的应用没有争议,而害虫发生量监测比较复杂,具有正反两方面的事例,其可靠性存在争议。本文在总结国内外研究结果的基础上,对如何提高利用信息化学物质进行监测和预测的可靠性进行了探讨。影响信息化学物质监测和预测害虫危害程度的因素很多,包括信息化学物质的成分、组成、剂量、释放速率,诱捕器种类和林间设置方法,监测对象的生物学、种群动态和发生阶段,害虫的生活环境条件(包括生物学因素如寄主种类、组成、年龄和密度等以及非生物因素如气候因子等),危害损失的估计方法,以及预测模型的类型和建模方法等。研究分析表明,正确的信息化学物质组成和比例、适当的信息化学物质用量和诱芯载体对信息化学物质的持续稳定释放是监测可靠性的基础,诱捕器的种类、设置方式、密度也需要进行测试并规范化,另外还需根据所监测对象的特性及其所处的环境研究制定特定的种群密度水平或寄主被害率统计方法及预测模型,建立系统的监测规范和程序。只要建立了符合所监测害虫特性和所处环境条件的监测方案,基于信息化学物质的害虫监测是可靠的。     

我国土壤动物与土壤环境要素相互关系研究进展

土壤动物与土壤生态系统的环境要素密切相关,探明土壤动物与环境要素之间的相互关系对深刻认识土壤生态系统的运行机制、评价土壤生态系统功能具有重要意义.影响土壤动物的环境要素可以分为土壤性质和土壤外部环境两方面,前者主要指土壤基本理化性质、土壤水分和土壤污染状况,后者包括植被、土地利用、地貌和气候等环境要素.本文从以上角度对我国土壤动物与土壤环境要素关系研究进行总结和归纳,认为当前我国相关研究中主要存在以下若干问题：与环境指示作用整合性研究较少,研究方法有待改进,对环境要素的综合性及其时空变异性认识不足.并提出了相应的建议：与实际研究需要相结合,借鉴国外先进方法经验,进行多要素综合研究以及开展大区域长期监测等.     

Physical fitness and job performance of firefighters

Accurate correlations between a wide range of physical fitness measures and occupational demands are needed in order to identify specific fitness tests and training needs for firefighters. Twenty professional firefighters performed numerous fitness and job-related performance tests. Pearson product moment correlations were performed to identify the relationship between fitness components and job performance. Significant correlations (p <0.05) with job performance were identified for total fitness (r = -0.62), bench press strength (r = -0.66), hand grip strength (r = -0.71), bent-over row endurance (r = -0.61), bench press endurance (r = -0.73), shoulder press endurance (r = -0.71), bicep endurance (r = -0.69), squat endurance (r = -0.47), and 400-m sprint time (r = 0.79). It is apparent that firefighting taxes virtually all aspects of physical fitness. These data can help the exercise specialist choose appropriate tests and prescribe specific fitness programs for firefighters. Traditional firefighter exercise programs focusing mainly on cardiovascular fitness should be replaced with physical conditioning programs that address all components of fitness.     

A Neglected Science: Applying Behavior to Aquatic Conservation

Behavioral theories, insights, and techniques are too frequently ignored by conservation biologists. Yet an animal's survival and reproductive success clearly depend on its behavior. Using examples from marine, freshwater, and terrestrial realms, I assert that behavioral information is invaluable in five conservation areas: (1) managing wild species (e.g., designing marine reserves; reducing animal–human conflicts; understanding and managing species' responses to human-induced environmental stress such as fishing, introduced species, and chemical, visual, and acoustic pollution); (2) actively reversing the decline of imperiled wild species (e.g., reducing bycatch by improving selectivity of fishing gear; re-establishing breeding populations and boosting reproduction); (3) assessing biodiversity (e.g., modeling population viability; censusing and monitoring populations and species); (4) captive breeding and reintroduction programs (e.g., minimizing loss of valuable phenotypes; teaching or maintaining valuable survival skills); and (5) changing human behavior in resource exploitation (e.g., using principles from social psychology). Both realized and potential applications to fishes are stressed. Finally, behavioral diversity, a valuable but neglected element of biodiversity, needs to be explicitly conserved to maintain diverse populations. Arguments are presented that the conservation of species diversity and genetic diversity alone does not necessarily protect important behavioral diversity. The maintenance of both individual and population variability may be essential for the preservation of a species.     

Monitoring programs of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico: inventory,development and use of a large monitoring database to map fish and invertebrate spatial distributions

Since the onset of fisheries science, monitoring programs have been implemented to support stock assessments and fisheries management. Here, we take inventory of the monitoring programs of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico (GOM) surveying fish and invertebrates and conduct a gap analysis of these programs. We also compile a large monitoring database encompassing much of the monitoring data collected in the U.S. GOM using random sampling schemes and employ this database to fit statistical models to then map the spatial distributions of 61 fish and invertebrate functional groups, species and life stages of the U.S. GOM. Finally, we provide recommendations for improving current monitoring programs and designing new programs, and guidance for more comprehensive use and sharing of monitoring data, with the ultimate goal of enhancing the inputs provided to stock assessments and ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) projects in the U.S. GOM. Our inventory revealed that 73 fisheries-independent and fisheries-dependent programs have been conducted in the U.S. GOM, most of which (85%) are still active. One distinctive feature of monitoring programs of the U.S. GOM is that they include many fisheries-independent surveys conducted almost year-round, contrasting with most other marine regions. A major sampling recommendation is the development of a coordinated strategy for collecting diet information by existing U.S. GOM monitoring programs for advancing EBFM.     

Methods in sustainable monitoring: plot sampling versus interviews

Biodiversity monitoring in developing countries has long been haunted by problems with sustaining monitoring programs, especially after funding stops. Current programs are developed to fulfill strict scientific demands, which often results in high priced programs, with little local participation and attention. Thus, to enhance sustainability of the biodiversity programs, there is a great need to reconcile scientific rigor with local involvement. In this paper, we analyze the cost-effectiveness and usefulness of a standard and a participatory monitoring method, in their ability to monitor biodiversity, while rising local participation. As a standard method we used a forest characteristic with tree basal area and Shannon index as proxy for biodiversity. Interviews were used as a participatory approach, with hunters’ catch-effort as proxy. The analysis showed that the interviews reached a better precision with fewer work hours spent and at the same time involved local populations and stake holders. As a tradeoff, the interviews lacked the scientific rigor from forest characteristic. In order to sustain monitoring programs, we conclude that conservation biologists needs to compromise between scientific rigor and public participation.     

Mapping the Information Landscape: Discerning Peaks and Valleys for Ecological Monitoring

We investigate previously unreported phenomena that have a potentially significant impact on the design of surveillance monitoring programs for ecological systems. Ecological monitoring practitioners have long recognized that different species are differentially informative of a system’s dynamics, as codified in the well-known concepts of indicator or keystone species. Using a novel combination of analysis techniques from nonlinear dynamics, we describe marked variation among spatial sites in information content with respect to system dynamics in the entire region. We first observed these phenomena in a spatially extended predator–prey model, but we observed strikingly similar features in verified water-level data from a NOAA/NOS Great Lakes monitoring program. We suggest that these features may be widespread and the design of surveillance monitoring programs should reflect knowledge of their existence.     

The art and science of multi-scale citizen science support

Citizen science and community-based monitoring programs are increasing in number and breadth, generating volumes of scientific data. Many programs are ill-equipped to effectively manage these data. We examined the art and science of multi-scale citizen science support, focusing on issues of integration and flexibility that arise for data management when programs span multiple spatial, temporal, and social scales across many domains. Our objectives were to: (1) briefly review existing citizen science approaches and data management needs; (2) propose a framework for multi-scale citizen science support; (3) develop a cyber-infrastructure to support citizen science program needs; and (4) describe lessons learned. We find that approaches differ in scope, scale, and activities and that the proposed framework situates programs while guiding cyber-infrastructure system development. We built a cyber-infrastructure support system for citizen science programs (www.citsci.org) and show that carefully designed systems can be adept enough to support programs at multiple spatial and temporal scales across many domains when built with a flexible architecture. The advantage of a flexible, yet controlled, cyber-infrastructure system lies in the ability of users with different levels of permission to easily customize the features themselves, while adhering to controlled vocabularies necessary for cross-discipline comparisons and meta-analyses. Program evaluation tied to this framework and integrated into cyber-infrastructure support systems will improve our ability to track effectiveness. We compare existing systems and discuss the importance of standards for interoperability and the challenges associated with system maintenance and long-term support. We conclude by offering a vision of the future of citizen science data management and cyber-infrastructure support.