Unraveling the evolution of auxin signaling

Auxin signaling is central to plant growth and development, yet hardly anything is known about its evolutionary origin. While the presence of key players in auxin signaling has been analyzed in various land plant species, similar analyses in the green algal lineages are lacking. Here, we survey the key players in auxin biology in the available genomes of Chlorophyta species. We found that the genetic potential for auxin biosynthesis and AUXIN1 (AUX1)/LIKE AUX1- and P-GLYCOPROTEIN/ATP-BINDING CASSETTE subfamily B-dependent transport is already present in several single-celled and colony-forming Chlorophyta species. In addition, our analysis of expressed sequence tag libraries from Coleochaete orbicularis and Spirogyra pratensis, green algae of the Streptophyta clade that are evolutionarily closer to the land plants than those of the Chlorophyta clade, revealed the presence of partial AUXIN RESPONSE FACTORs and/or AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID proteins (the key factors in auxin signaling) and PIN-FORMED-like proteins (the best-characterized auxin-efflux carriers). While the identification of these possible AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR- and AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID precursors and putative PIN-FORMED orthologs calls for a deeper investigation of their evolution after sequencing more intermediate genomes, it emphasizes that the canonical auxin response machinery and auxin transport mechanisms were, at least in part, already present before plants "moved" to land habitats.     

The bryophytes Physcomitrium patens and Marchantia polymorpha as model systems for studying evolutionary cell and developmental biology in plants

Bryophytes are nonvascular spore-forming plants. Unlike in flowering plants, the gametophyte (haploid) generation of bryophytes dominates the sporophyte (diploid) generation. A comparison of bryophytes with flowering plants allows us to answer some fundamental questions raised in evolutionary cell and developmental biology. The moss Physcomitrium patens was the first bryophyte with a sequenced genome. Many cell and developmental studies have been conducted in this species using gene targeting by homologous recombination. The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha has recently emerged as an excellent model system with low genomic redundancy in most of its regulatory pathways. With the development of molecular genetic tools such as efficient genome editing, both P. patens and M. polymorpha have provided many valuable insights. Here, we review these advances with a special focus on polarity formation at the cell and tissue levels. We examine current knowledge regarding the cellular mechanisms of polarized cell elongation and cell division, including symmetric and asymmetric cell division. We also examine the role of polar auxin transport in mosses and liverworts. Finally, we discuss the future of evolutionary cell and developmental biological studies in plants.

A review of the cell biological and developmental mechanisms of bryophytes, including Physcomitrium patens and Marchantia polymorpha.     

Auxin Produced by the Indole-3-Pyruvic Acid Pathway Regulates Development and Gemmae Dormancy in the Liverwort Marchantia polymorpha

The plant hormone auxin (indole-3-acetic acid [IAA]) has previously been suggested to regulate diverse forms of dormancy in both seed plants and liverworts. Here, we use loss- and gain-of-function alleles for auxin synthesis- and signaling-related genes, as well as pharmacological approaches, to study how auxin regulates development and dormancy in the gametophyte generation of the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha. We found that M. polymorpha possess the smallest known toolkit for the indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPyA) pathway in any land plant and that this auxin synthesis pathway mainly is active in meristematic regions of the thallus. Previously a Trp-independent auxin synthesis pathway has been suggested to produce a majority of IAA in bryophytes. Our results indicate that the Trp-dependent IPyA pathway produces IAA that is essential for proper development of the gametophyte thallus of M. polymorpha. Furthermore, we show that dormancy of gemmae is positively regulated by auxin synthesized by the IPyA pathway in the apex of the thallus. Our results indicate that auxin synthesis, transport, and signaling, in addition to its role in growth and development, have a critical role in regulation of gemmae dormancy in M. polymorpha.     

ROP3 GTPase Contributes to Polar Auxin Transport and Auxin Responses and Is Important for Embryogenesis and Seedling Growth in Arabidopsis

ROP GTPases are crucial for the establishment of cell polarity and for controlling responses to hormones and environmental signals in plants. In this work, we show that ROP3 plays important roles in embryo development and auxin-dependent plant growth. Loss-of-function and dominant-negative (DN) mutations in ROP3 induced a spectrum of similar defects starting with altered cell division patterning during early embryogenesis to postembryonic auxin-regulated growth and developmental responses. These resulted in distorted embryo development, defective organ formation, retarded root gravitropism, and reduced auxin-dependent hypocotyl elongation. Our results showed that the expression of AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR5/MONOPTEROS and root master regulators PLETHORA1 (PLT1) and PLT2 was reduced in DN-rop3 mutant embryos, accounting for some of the observed patterning defects. ROP3 mutations also altered polar localization of auxin efflux proteins (PINs) at the plasma membrane (PM), thus disrupting auxin maxima in the root. Notably, ROP3 is induced by auxin and prominently detected in root stele cells, an expression pattern similar to those of several stele-enriched PINs. Our results demonstrate that ROP3 is important for maintaining the polarity of PIN proteins at the PM, which in turn ensures polar auxin transport and distribution, thereby controlling plant patterning and auxin-regulated responses.     

Abscisic Acid Represses Growth of the Arabidopsis Embryonic Axis after Germination by Enhancing Auxin Signaling

Under unfavorable environmental conditions, the stress phytohormone ABA inhibits the developmental transition from an embryo in a dry seed into a young seedling. We developed a genetic screen to isolate Arabidopsis thaliana mutants whose early seedling development is resistant to ABA. Here, we report the identification of a recessive mutation in AUXIN RESISTANT1 (AUX1), encoding a cellular auxin influx carrier. Although auxin is a major morphogenesis hormone in plants, little is known about ABA–auxin interactions during early seedling growth. We show that aux1 and pin2 mutants are insensitive to ABA-dependent repression of embryonic axis (hypocotyl and radicle) elongation. Genetic and physiological experiments show that this involves auxin transport to the embryonic axis elongation zone, where ABA enhances the activity of an auxin-responsive promoter. We propose that ABA represses embryonic axis elongation by potentiating auxin signaling in its elongation zone. This involves repression of the AUXIN INDUCIBLE (Aux/IAA) gene AXR2/IAA7, encoding a key component of ABA- and auxin-dependent responses during postgerminative growth.     

PIF4 and PIF5 Transcription Factors Link Blue Light and Auxin to Regulate the Phototropic Response in Arabidopsis

Both blue light (BL) and auxin are essential for phototropism in Arabidopsis thaliana. However, the mechanisms by which light is molecularly linked to auxin during phototropism remain elusive. Here, we report that PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR4 (PIF4) and PIF5 act downstream of the BL sensor PHOTOTROPIN1 (PHOT1) to negatively modulate phototropism in Arabidopsis. We also reveal that PIF4 and PIF5 negatively regulate auxin signaling. Furthermore, we demonstrate that PIF4 directly activates the expression of the AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID (IAA) genes IAA19 and IAA29 by binding to the G-box (CACGTG) motifs in their promoters. Our genetic assays demonstrate that IAA19 and IAA29, which physically interact with AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR7 (ARF7), are sufficient for PIF4 to negatively regulate auxin signaling and phototropism. This study identifies a key step of phototropic signaling in Arabidopsis by showing that PIF4 and PIF5 link light and auxin.     

Genetic,functional and evolutionary characterization of scox,the Drosophila melanogaster ortholog of the human SCO1 gene

SCO proteins are copper-donor chaperones involved in the assembly of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (COX). Mutations in the two human SCO-encoding genes, SCO1 and SCO2, produce tissue-specific COX deficiencies associated with distinct clinical phenotypes. Here, we report the identification and characterization of scox, the single Drosophila melanogaster SCO-encoding gene. Null mutations of the scox gene are associated with larval lethality, while mutations in its 5′UTR are associated with motor dysfunction and female sterile phenotypes. All mutant phenotypes may be rescued by a transgene encompassing wild-type scox. The analysis of the phenotypes associated with the D. melanogaster scox mutations shows that unimpaired COX assembly and activity is required for biological processes that specifically depend on an adequate energy supply. Finally, we identified the SCO1 orthologs in 39 eukaryotic species informative for a tentative reconstruction of the evolutionary history of the SCO function. Comparison of the exon/intron structure and other key features suggest that eukaryotic SCO genes descend from an intron-rich ancestral gene already present in the last common ancestor of lineages that diverged as early as metazoans and flowering plants.