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1.
Development of a linkage map and mapping of phenotypic polymorphisms in a free-living population of Soay sheep (Ovis aries)
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An understanding of the determinants of trait variation and the selective forces acting on it in natural populations would give insights into the process of evolution. The combination of long-term studies of individuals living in the wild and better genomic resources for nonmodel organisms makes achieving this goal feasible. This article reports the development of a complete linkage map in a pedigree of free-living Soay sheep on St. Kilda and its application to mapping the loci responsible for three morphological polymorphisms for which the maintenance of variation demands explanation. The map was derived from 251 microsatellite and four allozyme markers and covers 3350 cM (approximately 90% of the sheep genome) at approximately 15-cM intervals. Marker order was consistent with the published sheep map with the exception of one region on chromosome 1 and one on chromosome 12. Coat color maps to chromosome 2 where a strong candidate gene, tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1), has also been mapped. Coat pattern maps to chromosome 13, close to the candidate locus Agouti. Horn type maps to chromosome 10, a location similar to that previously identified in domestic sheep. These findings represent an advance in the dissection of the genetic diversity in the wild and provide the foundation for QTL analyses in the study population. 相似文献
2.
《Small Ruminant Research》2010,94(2-3):171-179
Despite their economical importance, relatively few molecular studies have been made on goats compared to other livestock species. The most recent goat map was published in 1998, and lacks complete genome coverage. A large number of discrepancies and especially inter-chromosomal re-assignments were reported between the 1998 goat linkage map and the sheep map. In this study 94 microsatellite markers were amplified in 12 half-sib South African Angora goat families for compilation of a genetic map, aiming to confirm or reject previously reported rearrangements and to improve the alignment between the ovine and caprine maps. The number of informative meiosis per marker ranged from 69 to 836, with an average of 518. The microsatellites were mapped to 23 chromosomes, spanning 1352 cM and resulting in an average marker interval of 23.0 cM. Marker orders were compared to the previously published goat maps, as well as to the ovine map. Six chromosomes (CHI 2, 4, 5, 11, 13 and 19) showed rearrangements in marker order compared to the 1998 Schibler et al. goat map, while nine previously unmapped markers were conclusively assigned to eight chromosomes. Four of the previously reported intra-chromosomal rearrangements between the goat and sheep maps were confirmed to be either population specific or mapping errors. The verification of rearrangements in loci order will lead to improved alignment between the two maps, as well as improved efficiency of genome and fine mapping efforts in goats. 相似文献
3.
D. J. Sargent F. Fernandéz-Fernandéz J. J. Ruiz-Roja B. G. Sutherland A. Passey A. B. Whitehouse D. W. Simpson 《Molecular breeding : new strategies in plant improvement》2009,24(3):293-303
The cultivated strawberry, Fragaria × ananassa, is the most economically-important soft-fruit species, but few practical molecular tools for the purpose of marker assisted selection currently exist. As a precursor to the development of such tools, a genetic linkage map was developed from a F1 population comprising 174 seedlings derived from a cross between two F. × ananassa cultivars, ‘Redgauntlet’ × ‘Hapil’. The resultant map is composed of 315 molecular markers—218 microsatellites, 11 gene-specific markers and 86 AFLP and RAPD markers—and spans 3,116 cM. In total, 69 linkage group fragments were recovered, more than the 56 linkage groups expected for the cultivated strawberry, however, all fragments contained a transferable marker that could be associated with one of 56 linkage group scaffolds. The female (Redgauntlet) and male (Hapil) linkage maps are composed, respectively of 170 loci in 32 linkage groups covering 1,675.3 cM and 182 loci in 37 linkage groups covering 1,440.7 cM, with 37 markers common to both maps. The maximum number of markers in one linkage group was 15, the minimum was two. All linkage groups resolved contained at least one transferable marker (SSR or gene-specific) that had been mapped on the diploid Fragaria reference map (FV × FB), and therefore all linkage groups could be identified as homologous to one of the seven diploid Fragaria linkage groups. When marker order was compared to the diploid Fragaria reference map, effectively complete colinearity was observed. However, the occurrence of duplicated loci on homologues of linkage groups FG1 and FG6 provided evidence of a putative chromosomal duplication or translocation event in Fragaria. The development of this linkage map will facilitate the study and dissection of QTL associated with traits of economic importance such as disease resistance and fruit quality, and provides a foundation for the development of markers for the purpose of marker assisted breeding and selection in the cultivated strawberry, F. × ananassa. 相似文献
4.
Kurar E Barendse W Bottema CD Davis S Föster M Kalm E Kappes SM Kister A Lewin HA Klungland H Medjugorac I Olsaker I Pitchford WS Schmutz SM Taylor J Thomsen H Kirkpatrick BW 《Animal genetics》2002,33(6):460-463
This study describes development of a consensus genetic linkage map of bovine chromosome 24 (BTA24). Eight participating laboratories contributed data for 58 unique markers including a total of 25 409 meioses. Eighteen markers, which were typed in more than one reference population, were used as potential anchors to generate a consensus framework map. The framework map contained 16 loci ordered with odds greater than 1000:1 and spanned 79.3 cM. Remaining markers were included in a comprehensive map relative to these anchors. The resulting BTA24 comprehensive map was 98.3 cM in length. Average marker intervals were 6.1 and 2.5 cM for framework and comprehensive maps, respectively. Marker order was generally consistent with previously reported BTA24 linkage maps. Only one discrepancy was found when comparing the comprehensive map with the published USDA-MARC linkage map. Integration of genetic information from different maps provides a high-resolution BTA24 linkage map. 相似文献
5.
Genetic mapping and localization of a major QTL for seedling resistance to downy mildew in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis) 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Shuancang Yu Fenglan Zhang Renbo Yu Yanmin Zou Jiani Qi Xiuyun Zhao Yangjun Yu Deshuang Zhang Li Li 《Molecular breeding : new strategies in plant improvement》2009,23(4):573-590
Downy mildew caused by the fungus Peronospora parisitica is a serious threat to members of the Brassicaceae family. Annually, a substantial loss of yield is caused by the widespread
presence of this disease in warm and humid climates. The aim of this study was to localize the genetic factors affecting downy
mildew resistance in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis). To achieve this goal, we improved a preexisting genetic map of a doubled-haploid population derived from a cross between
two diverse Chinese cabbage lines, 91-112 and T12-19, via microspore culture. Microsatellite simple sequence repeat (SSR)
markers, isozyme markers, sequence-related amplified polymorphism markers, sequence-characterized amplified region markers
and sequence-tagged-site markers were integrated into the previously published map to construct a composite Chinese cabbage
map. In this way, the identities of linkage groups corresponding to the Brassica A genome reference map were established. The new map contains 519 markers and covers a total length of 1,070 cM, with an
average distance between markers of 2.06 cM. All markers were designated as A1–A10 through alignment and orientation using
55 markers anchored to previously published B. rapa or B. napus reference maps. Of the 89 SSR markers mapped, 15 were newly developed from express sequence tags in Genbank. The phenotypic
assay indicated that a single major gene controls seedling resistance to downy mildew, and that a major QTL was detected on
linkage group A8 by both interval and MQM mapping methods. The RAPD marker K14-1030 and isozyme marker PGM flanked this major
QTL in a region spanning 2.9 cM, and the SSR marker Ol12G04 was linked to this QTL by a distance of 4.36 cM. This study identified
a potential chromosomal segment and tightly linked markers for use in marker-assisted selection to improve downy mildew resistance
in Chinese cabbage. 相似文献
6.
An SSR genetic map of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench and its comparison to a published genetic map. 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench is an important grain and forage crop grown worldwide. We developed a simple sequence repeat (SSR) linkage map for sorghum using 352 publicly available SSR primer pairs and a population of 277 F2 individuals derived from a cross between the Westland A line and PI 550610. A total of 132 SSR loci appeared polymorphic in the mapping population, and 118 SSRs were mapped to 16 linkage groups. These mapped SSR loci were distributed throughout 10 chromosomes of sorghum, and spanned a distance of 997.5 cM. More important, 38 new SSR loci were added to the sorghum genetic map in this study. The mapping result also showed that chromosomes SBI-01, SBI-02, SBI-05, and SBI-06 each had 1 linkage group; the other 6 chromosomes were composed of 2 linkage groups each. Except for 5 closely linked marker flips and 1 locus (Sb6_34), the marker order of this map was collinear to a published sorghum map, and the genetic distances of common marker intervals were similar, with a difference ratio 相似文献
7.
Huang Y Liu Q Tang B Lin L Liu W Zhang L Li N Hu X 《Cytogenetic and genome research》2008,121(2):130-136
Molecular genetic maps can provide information for the identification and localization of major genes associated with quantitative traits. However, there are currently no published genetic linkage maps for any ratites. Herein, a preliminary genetic map of ostrich was developed using a two-generation ostrich reference family by linkage analysis of 104 polymorphic microsatellite markers, including 40 novel markers reported in this study. A total of 35 microsatellite markers were placed into 13 linkage groups. Five linkage groups are composed of three or more loci, whereas the remaining eight groups each contained two markers. The sex-averaged map spans 365.4 cM. The marker interval of each linkage group ranges from 5.3 to 25.4 cM, and the average interval distance is 16.61 cM. The male map covers 342.7 cM, with an average intermarker distance of 15.58 cM, whereas the female map is 456.7 cM, with the average intermarker spacing of 20.76 cM. In order to screen the orthologous loci between ostrich and chicken, all of the flanking sequences of the 104 polymorphic loci, nine monomorphic loci and a further 12 reported microsatellite loci for ostrich were screened against the chicken genomic sequence using the BLAST algorithm (Altschul et al., 1990), and corresponding orthologs were found for 13 sequences. The microsatellite loci and genetic map developed in this study will be useful for QTL mapping, population genetics and phylogenetic studies in the ratite. In addition, the 13 orthologous loci identified in this study will be advantageous to the construction of a comparative genetic map between chicken and ostrich. 相似文献
8.
Jarvis DE Kopp OR Jellen EN Mallory MA Pattee J Bonifacio A Coleman CE Stevens MR Fairbanks DJ Maughan PJ 《Journal of genetics》2008,87(1):39-51
Quinoa is a regionally important grain crop in the Andean region of South America. Recently quinoa has gained international attention for its high nutritional value and tolerances of extreme abiotic stresses. DNA markers and linkage maps are important tools for germplasm conservation and crop improvement programmes. Here we report the development of 216 new polymorphic SSR (simple sequence repeats) markers from libraries enriched for GA, CAA and AAT repeats, as well as 6 SSR markers developed from bacterial artificial chromosome-end sequences (BES-SSRs). Heterozygosity (H) values of the SSR markers ranges from 0.12 to 0.90, with an average value of 0.57. A linkage map was constructed for a newly developed recombinant inbred lines (RIL) population using these SSR markers. Additional markers, including amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), two 11S seed storage protein loci, and the nucleolar organizing region (NOR), were also placed on the linkage map. The linkage map presented here is the first SSR-based map in quinoa and contains 275 markers, including 200 SSR. The map consists of 38 linkage groups (LGs) covering 913 cM. Segregation distortion was observed in the mapping population for several marker loci, indicating possible chromosomal regions associated with selection or gametophytic lethality. As this map is based primarily on simple and easily-transferable SSR markers, it will be particularly valuable for research in laboratories in Andean regions of South America. 相似文献
9.
10.
Liu ZH Anderson JA Hu J Friesen TL Rasmussen JB Faris JD 《TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte Genetik》2005,111(4):782-794
Efficient user-friendly methods for mapping plant genomes are highly desirable for the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs), genotypic profiling, genomic studies, and marker-assisted selection. SSR (microsatellite) markers are user-friendly and efficient in detecting polymorphism, but they detect few loci. Target region amplification polymorphism (TRAP) is a relatively new PCR-based technique that detects a large number of loci from a single reaction without extensive pre-PCR processing of samples. In the investigation reported here, we used both SSRs and TRAPs to generate over 700 markers for the construction of a genetic linkage map in a hard red spring wheat intervarietal recombinant inbred population. A framework map consisting of 352 markers accounted for 3,045 cM with an average density of one marker per 8.7 cM. On average, SSRs detected 1.9 polymorphic loci per reaction, while TRAPs detected 24. Both marker systems were suitable for assigning linkage groups to chromosomes using wheat aneuploid stocks. We demonstrated the utility of the maps by identifying major QTLs for days to heading and reduced plant height on chromosomes 5A and 4B, respectively. Our results indicate that TRAPs are highly efficient for genetic mapping in wheat. The maps developed will be useful for the identification of quality and disease resistance QTLs that segregate in this population. 相似文献
11.
Towards a unified genetic map for diploid roses 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Spiller M Linde M Hibrand-Saint Oyant L Tsai CJ Byrne DH Smulders MJ Foucher F Debener T 《TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte Genetik》2011,122(3):489-500
We have constructed the first integrated consensus map (ICM) for rose, based on the information of four diploid populations and more than 1,000 initial markers. The single population maps are linked via 59 bridge markers, on average 8.4 per linkage group (LG). The integrated map comprises 597 markers, 206 of which are sequence-based, distributed over a length of 530?cM on seven LGs. By using a larger effective population size and therefore higher marker density, the marker order in the ICM is more reliable than in the single population maps. This is supported by a more even marker distribution and a decrease in gap sizes in the consensus map as compared to the single population maps. This unified map establishes a standard nomenclature for rose LGs, and presents the location of important ornamental traits, such as self-incompatibility, black spot resistance (Rdr1), scent production and recurrent blooming. In total, the consensus map includes locations for 10 phenotypic single loci, QTLs for 7 different traits and 51 ESTs or gene-based molecular markers. This consensus map combines for the first time the information for traits with high relevance for rose variety development. It will serve as a tool for selective breeding and marker assisted selection. It will benefit future efforts of the rose community to sequence the whole rose genome and will be useful for synteny studies in the Rosaceae family and especially in the section Rosoideae. 相似文献
12.
A consensus linkage map of barley 总被引:5,自引:0,他引:5
Peter Langridge Angelo Karakousis Nick Collins Jodie Kretschmer Sue Manning 《Molecular breeding : new strategies in plant improvement》1995,1(4):389-395
A consensus linkage map of the barley genome was constructed. The map is based on six doubled haploid and one F2 population. The mapping data for three of the doubled haploid populations was obtained via the GrainGenes database. To allow merger of the maps, only RFLP markers that produce a single scorable band were included. Although this reduced the available markers by about half, the resultant map contains a total of 587 markers including 87 of known function. As expected, gene order was highly conserved between maps and all but two discrepancies were found in closely linked markers and are likely to result from the small population sizes used for some maps. The consensus map allows the rapid localisation of markers between published maps and should facilitate the selection of markers for high-density mapping in defined regions. 相似文献
13.
Price JA Brewer CS Howard TD Fossey SC Sale MM Ji L Krolewski AS Bowden DW 《Genomics》1999,62(2):208-215
Several recent genetic studies have suggested linkage of Type 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) susceptibility to a region of chromosome 20q12-q13.1. To facilitate the identification and cloning of a diabetes susceptibility gene(s) in this region, we have constructed correlated radiation hybrid and YAC/BAC contig physical maps of the region. A high-resolution radiation hybrid map encompassing 9.5 Mb between the PLC and the CEBPB genes was constructed using 68 markers: 25 polymorphic markers, 15 known genes, 21 ESTs, and 7 random genomic sequences. The physical order of the polymorphic markers within this radiation hybrid map is consistent with published genetic maps. A YAC/BAC contig that gives continuous coverage between PLC and CEBPB was also constructed. This contig was constructed from 24 YACs, 34 BACs, and 1 P1 phage clone onto which 71 markers were mapped: 23 polymorphic markers, 12 genes, 24 ESTs, and 12 random genomic sequences. The radiation hybrid map and YAC/BAC physical map enable precise mapping of newly identified transcribed sequences and polymorphic markers that will aid in linkage and linkage disequilibrium studies and facilitate identification and cloning of candidate Type 2 diabetes susceptibility genes residing in 20q12-q13.1. 相似文献
14.
Mignouna D Mank A Ellis N Van Den Bosch N Asiedu R Ng C Peleman J 《TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte Genetik》2002,105(5):716-725
A genetic linkage map of the tetraploid white yam (Dioscorea rotundata Poir.) was constructed based on 341 co-dominantly scored amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers segregating in an intraspecific F1 cross. The F1 mapping population was produced by crossing a landrace cultivar TDr 93-1 as female parent to a breeding line TDr 87/00211 as the male parent. The marker segregation data were split into maternal and paternal data sets, and separate genetic linkage maps were constructed since the mapping population was an F1 cross between two presumed heterozygous parents. The markers segregated like a diploid cross-pollinator population suggesting that the D. rotundata genome is an allo-tetraploid (2n = 4x = 40). The maternal map comprised 155 markers mapped on 12 linkage groups with a total map length of 891 cM. Three linkage groups consisted of maternal parent markers only. The paternal map consisted of 157 markers mapped on 13 linkage groups with a total map length of 852 cM. Three and one quantitative trait loci (QTLs) with effects on resistance to Yam Mosaic Virus (YMV) were identified on the maternal and paternal linkage maps, respectively. Prospects for detecting more QTLs and using marker-assisted selection in white yam breeding appear good, but this is subject to the identification of additional molecular markers to cover more of the genome. 相似文献
15.
Construction of an integrated map of rose with AFLP, SSR, PK, RGA, RFLP, SCAR and morphological markers 总被引:15,自引:0,他引:15
Yan Z Denneboom C Hattendorf A Dolstra O Debener T Stam P Visser PB 《TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte Genetik》2005,110(4):766-777
A high-density genetic map with a number of anchor markers has been created to be used as a tool to dissect genetic variation in rose. Linkage maps for the diploid 94/1 population consisting of 88 individuals were constructed using a total of 520 molecular markers including AFLP, SSR, PK, RGA, RFLP, SCAR and morphological markers. Seven linkage groups, putatively corresponding to the seven haploid rose chromosomes, were identified for each parent, spanning 487 cM and 490 cM, respectively. The average length of 70 cM may cover more than 90% of the rose genome. An integrated map was constructed by incorporating the homologous parental linkage groups, resulting in seven linkage groups with a total length of 545 cM. The present linkage map is currently the most advanced map in rose with regard to marker density, genome coverage and with robust markers, giving good perspectives for QTL mapping and marker-assisted breeding in rose. The SSR markers, together with RFLP markers, provide good anchor points for future map alignment studies in rose and related species. Codominantly scored AFLP markers were helpful in the integration of the parental maps. 相似文献
16.
Excess heterozygosity contributes to genetic map expansion in pea recombinant inbred populations 总被引:9,自引:0,他引:9
Several plant genetic maps presented in the literature are longer than expected from cytogenetic data. Here we compare F(2) and RI maps derived from a cross between the same two parental lines and show that excess heterozygosity contributes to map inflation. These maps have been constructed using a common set of dominant markers. Although not generally regarded as informative for F(2) mapping, these allowed rapid map construction, and the resulting data analysis has provided information not otherwise obvious when examining a population from only one generation. Segregation distortion, a common feature of most populations and marker systems, found in the F(2) but not the RI, has identified excess heterozygosity. A few markers with a deficiency of heterozygotes were found to map to linkage group V (chromosome 3), which is known to form rod bivalents in this cross. Although the final map length was longer for the F(2) population, the mapped order of markers was generally the same in the F(2) and RI maps. The data presented in this analysis reconcile much of the inconsistency between map length estimates from chiasma counts and genetic data. 相似文献
17.
Evidence for asthma susceptibility genes on chromosome 11 in an African-American population 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
Huang SK Mathias RA Ehrlich E Plunkett B Liu X Cutting GR Wang XJ Li XD Togias A Barnes KC Malveaux F Rich S Mellen B Lange E Beaty TH;Comparative Study on the Genetics of Asthma 《Human genetics》2003,113(1):71-75
Initial genome-wide scan data provided suggestive evidence for linkage of the asthma phenotype in African-American (AA), but not Caucasian, families to chromosome 11q markers (peak at D11S1985; LOD=2). To refine this region, mapping analysis of 91 AA families (51 multiplex families and 40 asthmatic case-parent trios) was performed with an additional 17 markers flanking the initial peak linkage marker. Multipoint analyses of the 51 multiplex families yielded significant evidence of linkage with a peak non-parametric linkage score of 4.38 at marker D11S1337 (map position 68.6 cM). Furthermore, family-based association and transmission disequilibrium tests conducted on all 91 families showed significant evidence of linkage in the presence of disequilibrium for several individual markers in this region. A putative susceptibility locus was estimated to be at map position 70.8 cM with a confidence interval spanning the linkage peak. Evidence from both linkage and association analyses suggest that this region of chromosome 11 contains one or more susceptibility genes for asthma in these AA families. 相似文献
18.
Xiaofeng Zhang Yan Zhang Xianhu Zheng Youyi Kuang Zixia Zhao Lan Zhao Chao Li Li Jiang Dingchen Cao Cuiyun Lu Peng Xu Xiaowen Sun 《Marine biotechnology (New York, N.Y.)》2013,15(3):275-312
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) is cultured worldwide and is a major contributor to the world’s aquaculture production. The common carp has a complex tetraploidized genome, which may historically experience additional whole genome duplication than most other Cyprinids. Fine maps for female and male carp were constructed using a mapping panel containing one F1 family with 190 progeny. A total of 1,025 polymorphic markers were used to construct genetic maps. For the female map, 559 microsatellite markers in 50 linkage groups cover 3,468 cM of the genome. For the male map, 383 markers in 49 linkage groups cover 1,811 cM of the genome. The consensus map was constructed by integrating the new map with two published linkage maps, containing 732 markers and spanning 3,278 cM in 50 linkage groups. The number of consensus linkage groups corresponds to the number of common carp chromosomes. A significant difference on sex recombinant rate was observed that the ratio of female and male recombination rates was 4.2:1. Comparative analysis was performed between linkage map of common carp and genome of zebrafish (Danio rerio), which revealed clear 2:1 relationship of common carp linkage groups and zebrafish chromosomes. The results provided evidence that common carp did experienced a specific whole genome duplication event comparing with most other Cyprinids. The consensus linkage map provides an important tool for genetic and genome study of common carp and facilitates genetic selection and breeding for common carp industry. 相似文献
19.
If loci are randomly distributed on a physical map, the density of markers on a genetic map will be inversely proportional to recombination rate. First proposed by MARY LYON, we have used this idea to estimate recombination rates from the Drosophila melanogaster linkage map. These results were compared with results of two other studies that estimated regional recombination rates in D. melanogaster using both physical and genetic maps. The three methods were largely concordant in identifying large-scale genomic patterns of recombination. The marker density method was then applied to the Mus musculus microsatellite linkage map. The distribution of microsatellites provided evidence for heterogeneity in recombination rates. Centromeric regions for several mouse chromosomes had significantly greater numbers of markers than expected, suggesting that recombination rates were lower in these regions. In contrast, most telomeric regions contained significantly fewer markers than expected. This indicates that recombination rates are elevated at the telomeres of many mouse chromosomes and is consistent with a comparison of the genetic and cytogenetic maps in these regions. The density of markers on a genetic map may provide a generally useful way to estimate regional recombination rates in species for which genetic, but not physical, maps are available. 相似文献
20.
Dawson DA Burke T Hansson B Pandhal J Hale MC Hinten GN Slate J 《Molecular ecology》2006,15(5):1299-1320
Abstract We present a predicted passerine genome map consisting of 196 microsatellite markers distributed across 25 chromosomes. The map was constructed by assigning chromosomal locations based on the sequence similarity between 550 publicly available passerine microsatellites and the draft chicken genome sequence published by the International Chicken Genome Sequencing Consortium. We compared this passerine microsatellite map with a recently published great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus) linkage map derived from the segregation of marker alleles in a pedigree of a natural population. Twenty-four microsatellite markers were shared between the two maps, distributed across ten chromosomes. Synteny was maintained between the predicted passerine microsatellite map and the great reed warbler linkage map, confirming the validity and accuracy of our approach. Possible applications of the predicted passerine microsatellite map include genome mapping; quantitative trait locus (QTL) discovery; understanding heterozygosity-fitness correlations; investigating avian karyotype evolution; understanding microsatellite mutation processes; and for identifying loci conserved in multiple species, unlinked loci for use in genotyping sets and sex-linked markers. 相似文献