Rumen protozoal diversity in the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) as compared with domestic goats (Capra hircus)

Rumen protozoal diversity in the Spanish ibex (SI) was studied in males (n=4), females (n=7) and young (n=4) from the Maestrazgo (Spain) and contrasted with domestic goats (n=3; DG) of the same region. There were no differences among SI types in protozoal concentration or in the number of protozoal species. Only protozoa from the genus Entodinium were observed in SI (seven species), the highest numbers corresponding to E. damae, E. ovibos and E. parvum. DG harboured threefold more species than SI. Nine to 10 Entodinium spp. were observed, but E. ovibos was absent from the rumen of DG, and E. damae was in only one animal. E. caudatum (caudatum, dubardi and lobospinosum morphotypes) occurred in the highest percentage, and E. dubardi, E. exiguum and E. parvum were quite abundant. Four genera of the subfamily Diplodiniinae and the genera Isotricha and Dasytricha from the family Isotrichidae were detected in DG. Epidinium (two DG) and Ophryoscolex (one DG) were also observed. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis agreed with microscopic classification, showing up to 8 and 16 bands in SI and DG samples, respectively. The three DG clustered together (similarity index over 0.84), and separately from SI (similarity index over 0.86), with only 0.58 similarity between host species.     

Influence of cohabitation between domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) and Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) on seroprevalence of infectious diseases

We have investigated the prevalence of infection with different pathogens in domestic goat (Capra hircus) and Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) populations from two neighbouring geographical zones (with or without cohabitation between wild and domestic species) in Spain. No ibexes were found to be seropositive for Brucella melitensis, Mycoplasma mycoides supspecies mycoides (Mycoplasma mycoides), bovine leukaemia virus, and Chlamydophila abortus or bovine herpes virus type 1 (BHV-1). Domestic goats from both zones were detected with antibodies to Chlamydophila abortus and BHV-1. The percentage seroprevalence against Coxiella burnetii, Mycoplasma agalactiae, Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) and bluetongue virus (BTV) was clearly higher in domestic goats compared to wild ibexes in both zones, although CAEV showed negative results in a zone where species were isolated from each other. Moreover, Borrelia burgdorferi and Pestivirus infection showed moderate seroprevalence differences between domestic and wild goats in cohabitation zones, with the highest prevalence found in wild ibexes from a non-cohabitation zone. Our results showed that cohabitation between species was a risk factor (P?<?0.05) in Q fever infection.     

Potential pathogens carried by Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) in southern Spain

The Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) population of southern Spain was surveyed for potential pathogens associated with the conjunctiva, external ear canal, as well as reproductive and upper respiratory tracts. We sampled 321 ibex (131 adult males, 100 adult females, and 90 yearlings); these included 271 apparently healthy animals and 50 that were naturally infected with Sarcoptes scabiei. A total of 688 bacterial isolates were identified (377 gram-negatives, 225 gram-positives, and 86 Mycoplasma spp.); sex, age, location, infection with S. scabiei, and disposition of the animal (free-ranging versus captive) were evaluated as risk factors for infection. Infections with Mycoplasma agalactiae and Mycoplasma arginini were associated with age, having a higher frequency of isolation in young animals. With Escherichia coli, Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida biotype A, and Staphylococcus aureus, significantly higher isolation rates were associated with adults. The isolation frequency for E. coli was higher in females, whereas Moraxella bovis isolations were mostly associated with males. The presence of mange increased the risk of infection with both Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus and M. haemolytica. The geographic origin of sampled animals was related to the isolation of Branhamella ovis, M. agalactiae, and all Pasteurella sp. Isolations of M. haemolytica, P. multocida biotype A, E. coli, and B. ovis were more prevalent in samples from free-ranging rather than captive animals. Of the gram-positive bacteria, S. aureus represented the predominant species isolated from nasal, vaginal, and ocular samples. Mycoplasma agalactiae and M. arginini were the predominant Mycoplasma spp., and both were associated most often with the external ear canal. The most frequently isolated gram-negative bacteria included E. coli, M. haemolytica, P. multocida biotype A, and B. ovis. Isolation rates of gram-negative species varied by source. In nasal samples, M. haemolytica and P. multocida biotype A were isolated most frequently, whereas in ocular and vaginal samples, B. ovis and E. coli, respectively, were most frequently isolated.     

A survey of the gastrointestinal nematodes of Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) in a high mountain habitat

We analyzed the content of the abomasum (n = 79) and small intestine (n = 83) of Spanish ibex from Sierra Nevada Natural Park, southern Spain. Fifteen species of trichostrongylid nematodes were identified, 4 of which were found for the first time in this host, i.e., Nematodirus fillicollis, N. oiratianus, Ostertagia lyrata, and O. ostertagi. Teladorsagia circumcincta and Marshallagia marshalli were the most abundant abomasal species, whereas N. abnormalis, N. davtiani, and N. oiratianus were dominant in the small intestine. Counts of both abomasal and intestinal nematodes were generally low (year-round-median = 292 and 94 worms, respectively), and significantly lower numbers of M. marshalli, N. davtiani, and N. oiratianus were found in summer. No sex-related differences in helminth abundance were found, but young ibex harbored significantly more N. davtiani and N. oiratianus than adults. The presence of scabies was not related to increased nematode counts.     

Horn quality and postmortem sperm parameters in Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica)

The horns are secondary sexual characteristics used by males of many ungulate species for intra-sexual fights during the rut. Thus, the dominant males with most developed horns are naturally selected for reproduction. Several studies have suggested that the quality of the horn, in many wild ruminants, may be correlated with semen quality. The aim of the present study was to determine whether inter-individual differences in levels of horn asymmetry and horn size are related to differences in sperm quality in a wild population of Spanish ibex by the assay of epididymal spermatozoa collected postmortem. In order to test this hypothesis we collected morphometric horns data from a total of 59 mature males (9-15 years of age) that were legally hunted during rutting season. The testicles were recovered, and the collection of epididymal spermatozoa was done at different times after death (2-60 h). The percentage of motile spermatozoa, motility rate, plasma membrane integrity, sperm viability, sperm morphology, and acrosome integrity were evaluated. Our findings showed that viable epididymal spermatozoa may be retrieved from dead animals many hours after death. However, sperm parameters were affected by the elapsed time between the death of the animal and spermatozoa collection. The study revealed that the horn quality was firstly associated with sperm motility.     

Effect of post-mortem time on post-thaw characteristics of Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) spermatozoa

Viable epididymal sperm can be obtained in the Spanish ibex during 24h after death, but it has been observed a significant effect of the post-mortem time on fertility success, so only goats inseminated with semen recovery during the first 8h became pregnant. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of post-mortem time on epididymal semen samples from of Spanish ibex. For this purpose, sperm samples from 36 males were collected at different post-mortem times, from 2 to 24h, and cryopreserved. Thawed samples were incubated for 2h at 37°C without dilution or after dilution in a modified Tyrode medium, in order to study the sperm resistance to dilution. Moreover, flow cytometry was used to assess the sperm viability (PI), phospolipid disorder of the plasma membrane (M540), mitochondrial membrane potential (Mitotracker Deep Red), indirect apoptosis markers (YOPRO-1) and sperm chromatin stability (SCSA(?)). Sperm motility was evaluated by computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA). Our results have shown that post-mortem time caused a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential. In this regard, the loss of energy could be responsible for the loss of maintenance of the membrane with a consequent increase in permeability leading to a decrease in sperm viability and motility, losing linearity and speed. Moreover, the loss of maintenance of the membrane influence the extent to which sperm will survive the cryopreservation process, as it shows the results obtained from the dilution-incubation resistance test. Finally, one important finding of this study is the demonstration of no effect of post-mortem time on post-thaw DNA integrity, giving us the possibility of using sperm samples from valuable males, even if it was not possible to process during the first 8h.     

Effect of egg yolk concentration on cryopreserving Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) epididymal spermatozoa

Tris-egg yolk based diluents provide adequate cryoprotection for the sperm of most wild species in which they have been tested. The objective of the current study was to evaluate various Tris-based diluents containing different concentrations of egg yolk, for the fertilizing ability of epididymal spermatozoa of the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) after freezing and thawing. For this purpose, we used heterologous in vivo fertilization by intrauterine insemination of domestic goats (Capra hircus). In Experiment 1, a Tris-citric acid-glucose (TCG) diluent containing 6% (v/v) egg yolk and a TCG extender containing 20% egg yolk were compared. In Experiment 2, a TCG-6% egg yolk extender was compared with Triladyl-20% egg yolk. Diluted samples were cooled slowly to 5 degrees C over 1 h and equilibrated at that temperature for 2 h. At that point, aliquots of samples were loaded into 0.25 ml straws, and frozen in nitrogen vapor for 10 min. The fertility of spermatozoa frozen in TCG-6% egg yolk was higher (P<0.05) than for those extended with TCG-20% egg yolk, and tended to be higher than for those frozen with Triladyl-20% egg yolk. From the results of this study, the use of Tris-based extenders containing low concentrations of egg yolk (6%) is recommended for cryopreserving Spanish ibex epididymal spermatozoa.     

Coccidia of the domestic goat (Capra hircus) in Saudi Arabia.

Faeces of 228 domestic goats (Capra hircus) from the central region of Saudi Arabia were examined for the presence of coccidian oocysts. Ten species of coccidia were identified and described. A total of 90.3% of the specimens were positive, most of them contained 100-1000 oocysts per g of faecal sample. Kids less than 1 year old had higher oocyst counts than goatlings or adult goats. Mixed infections with three to five species were found in 69.7% of the specimens and six to eight species were found in 10.1%. Eimeria arloingi and E. hirci were most prevalent. E. alijevi, E. ninakohlyakimovae, E. caprina, E. christenseni and E. apsheronica were less common. E. jolchijevi, E. caprovina and E. punctata were relatively rare.     

Hematologic and biochemical values for Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) captured via drive-net and box-trap

Between October 2002 and September 2004, 70 free-ranging Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) were captured in Catalonia, northeastern Spain, using two different physical methods, drive-net (n=26) and box-trap (n=44). Blood samples were taken to determine 20 hematologic and 23 biochemical variables. Values obtained fell within already published reference intervals, with the following exceptions: higher values for red blood cells (RBC), packed cell volume (PCV), white blood cells (WBC), eosinophil count, triglyceride concentration, creatine kinase (CK; in box-trap), chloride, sodium, alpha-1, alpha-2, and gamma electrophoretic fractions of serum proteins; and lower values for hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), urea concentration, CK (in drive-net), albumin, and albumin:globulins ratio (A:G). Published values for aspartate aminotransferase (AST) concentration are both higher and lower than observed in this study. In our study, monocyte and eosinophil counts, as well as triglyceride and potassium concentrations, were lower in animals captured via box-trap than those captured via drive-net. Conversely, MCHC, neutrophil count, total bilirubin concentration, urea, and AST were higher in animals captured via box-trap. Hematologic and biochemical values obtained from Spanish ibexes show that the drive-net is a newer, less-stressful method of capture than the box-trap.     

Epidemiology of Mycoplasma agalactiae infection in free-ranging Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) in Andalusia, southern Spain

Mycoplasma agalactiae is the main causal agent of contagious agalactia syndrome in Spain. It is a severe disease of small ruminants, endemic in Mediterranean countries, that is characterized by mastitis, arthritis, and keratoconjunctivitis. This paper investigates the temporal, spatial, and host-related factors in the distribution of M. agalactiae infection from October 1996 to November 1998 and March 2002 to May 2003 in Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) populations from Andalusia, in southern Spain. The predisposing factors to infection among previously selected factors (year of sampling, climatic season, geographic origin according to province, mountain range and metapopulation, sex, year of life, presence of scabies, and phase of the reproductive cycle) were established. We collected conjunctival and ear-canal swabs from 411 free-ranging ibexes. The frequency of infected ibexes was 11.2%. The peak frequency of infection occurred in 1998 and in summer. Granada was the province with greatest risk (odds ratio = 2.6) of carriers (18.8% infected). The predisposing factors were sex (females), age (young animals), and metapopulation (Sierra Nevada). We identified a higher number of infected ibexes in the metapopulation "Sierra Nevada" (34/ 256) and significant differences among the three established metapopulations (P<0.01). Mycoplasma agalactiae infection represents a risk for population density and maintenance of these wild populations; infections can result in blindness, malnutrition, and polyarthritis leading to numerous deaths.     

Successful ultrarapid cryopreservation of wild Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) spermatozoa

A method for cryopreserving wild ibex sperm at high cooling rates was developed. To design a freezing solution based on Tris, citric acid, and glucose (TCG), two preliminary experiments were performed using glycerol (GLY) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at different concentrations (5%, 10%, 20%). The 10% GLY + 10% DMSO combination reduced (P < 0.05) frozen-thawed sperm motility, which reached a minimum when 20% GLY + 20% DMSO was used. In the second experiment, sperm tolerance to three sucrose concentrations was evaluated (100-mM sucrose, 300-mM sucrose, 500-mM sucrose). Frozen-thawed sperm motility and sperm viability decreased (P < 0.05) at concentrations above 300 mM. The ultrarapid cooling procedure finally used involved a TCG egg yolk (ey)–based extender with 100-mM sucrose, either alone or with 5% GLY with or without BSA. Two warming procedures (37 °C vs. 60 °C) were also evaluated. The TCG ey with 100-mM sucrose but without GLY/BSA returned the best sperm quality variables. Slow warming at 37 °C strongly affected (P < 0.05) sperm motility and viability in all groups. Sperm selection by density gradient centrifugation produced no motile sperm when slow warming was performed. In contrast, when fast warming was used, sperm selection increased (P < 0.05) percentage of motility, viability, and the percentage of sperms with intact acrosomes. Heterologous in vivo fertilization involving domestic goats was performed to evaluate the in vivo fertilization capacity of the ultrarapidly cooled cryopreserved sperm (in TCG-ey + 100 mM sucrose), with warming undertaken at 60 °C. Inseminations of domestic goats resulted in three pregnancies (3 of 16, 18.7% fertility). In conclusion, ibex spermatozoa are strongly sensitive to high concentrations of permeable cryoprotectants and sucrose. However, the combination of ultrarapid cooling, using TCG-ey + 100-mM sucrose, and fast warming at 60 °C, followed by sperm selection by density gradient centrifugation to collect the motile sperm, has a positive effect on sperm viability.     

Seasonal ovulatory activity and plasma prolactin concentrations in the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) maintained in captivity

Seasonal changes in ovulatory activity, assessed by the measurement of plasma progesterone and plasma prolactin concentrations were monitored in 10 Spanish ibex females captured in the National Wildlife Reserve of Sierra Nevada (South Spain, 37 degrees N). Five of the 10 female ibex showed ovulatory activity with a mean (+/- s.e.m.) duration of the oestrous cycle of 19.4 +/- 1 days (range: 17-23 days). On average, the five cyclic females weighed 28 +/- 0.9 kg. Progesterone cycles occurred only in animals older than 4 years of age. Ovulatory activity extended from December to January. The duration of the breeding season was 43.2 +/- 7.7 days. Ibex females younger than 4 years of age had a body weight lower (P < 0.01 ) than that of adults and none of them displayed ovulations. Plasma concentrations of prolactin levels were significantly affected by season (P < 0.05), following a trend that was roughly parallel to daylength. The highest values occurred in the spring (119.7 +/- 21.4 ng x mL(-1)) and the summer (139.3 +/- 19.8 ng x mL(-1)), the lowest values in the autumn (26 +/- 7.4 ng x mL(-1)) and in the winter (19.7 +/- 3.2 ng x mL(-1)). Our results showed a very restricted breeding season, despite the fact that the Spanish ibex originates from and lives in a temperate latitude, revealing a remarkably good adaptation to the harsh climatic and nutritional conditions of their mountainous habitat.     

Venous segments in the goat (Capra hircus) spleen

46 goat spleens were studied to observe the venous segmentation in them by preparing the corrosion cast of the splenic vein and its intrasplenic tree. 56.5% of the specimens revealed the presence of two splenic venous segments - a right and a left one -, and 30.4% of cases showed the presence of three venous segments - a right, a left and a hilar one. The rest did not show any venous segmentations.     

Determination of pregnancy-associated glycoprotein concentrations in goats (Capra hircus) with unsuccessful pregnancies: a retrospective study

Presented here are the profiles of pregnancy-associated glycoprotein (PAG) concentrations in blood collected weekly from goats experiencing maintained and unsuccessful pregnancies. The analysis of these profiles clearly indicated 4 different situations: the pseudopregnancy syndrome, abortion between Days 89 and 137, parturition of 1 dead and 1 live fetus, and expulsion of macerated or mummified fetuses after full term. A marked reduction in PAG concentration at any time during pregnancy was followed by an event such as abortion or the expulsion of a dead fetus at term or later.     

Non-cutaneous peripheral thermosensitivity in the goat (Capra hircus)

1. A 0.2 m2 area of the trunk skin was denervated and its center was externally cooled or warmed, when central body temperature was lowered. 2. When the denervated skin was cooled, the central body temperature, at which shivering occurred, was significantly higher than with warming of the denervated skin. 3. It is concluded that the difference was caused by temperature signals originating from thermoreceptors in tissue layers underneath the denervated skin.     

Distribution of rhodanese in tissues of goat (Capra hircus)

Rhodanese (thiosulfate: cyanide sulfurtransferase, EC. 2.8.1.1) is a ubiquitous enzyme present in all living organisms, from bacteria to humans and plays a central role in cyanide detoxification. The purpose of this investigation is to determine and compare rhodanese activity in different tissues of adult male and female goats (Capra hircus). The results showed that the specific activity of rhodanese in different tissues was significantly different (P<0.05). The highest activity of rhodanese was in epithelium of rumen, followed by epithelia of reticulum and omasum and liver. No significant difference was observed when tissues of male and female goats were compared. The lowest specific activity of rhodanese was observed in spleen, urinary bladder, lymph node, ovary, skeletal muscle and pyloric muscle of abomasum. The results of this study may indicate the involvement of rhodanese in cyanide detoxification in goat tissues that have greater potential to be exposed to higher levels of cyanide.