Variations of root and heterotrophic respiration along environmental gradients in China's forests

Aims Root and heterotrophic respiration may respond differently to environmental variability, but little evidence is available from large-scale observations. Here we aimed to examine variations of root and heterotrophic respiration across broad geographic, climatic, soil and biotic gradients.Methods We conducted a synthesis of 59 field measurements on root and heterotrophic respiration across China's forests.Important findings Root and heterotrophic respiration varied differently with forest types, of which evergreen broadleaf forest was significantly different from those in other forest types on heterotrophic respiration but without statistically significant differences on root respiration. The results also indicated that root and heterotrophic respiration exhibited similar trends along gradients of precipitation, soil organic carbon and satellite-indicated vegetation growth. However, they exhibited different relationships with temperature: root respiration exhibited bimodal patterns along the temperature gradient, while heterotrophic respiration increased monotonically with temperature. Moreover, they showed different relationships with MOD17 GPP, with increasing trend observed for root respiration whereas insignificant change for heterotrophic respiration. In addition, root and heterotrophic respiration exhibited different changes along the age sequence, with insignificant change for root respiration and decreasing trend for heterotrophic respiration. Overall, these results suggest that root and heterotrophic respiration may respond differently to environmental variability. Our findings could advance our understanding on the different environmental controls of root and heterotrophic respiration and also improve our ability to predict soil CO₂ flux under a changing environment.     

Soil respiration under climate warming: differential response of heterotrophic and autotrophic respiration

Despite decades of research, how climate warming alters the global flux of soil respiration is still poorly characterized. Here, we use meta‐analysis to synthesize 202 soil respiration datasets from 50 ecosystem warming experiments across multiple terrestrial ecosystems. We found that, on average, warming by 2 °C increased soil respiration by 12% during the early warming years, but warming‐induced drought partially offset this effect. More significantly, the two components of soil respiration, heterotrophic respiration and autotrophic respiration showed distinct responses. The warming effect on autotrophic respiration was not statistically detectable during the early warming years, but nonetheless decreased with treatment duration. In contrast, warming by 2 °C increased heterotrophic respiration by an average of 21%, and this stimulation remained stable over the warming duration. This result challenged the assumption that microbial activity would acclimate to the rising temperature. Together, our findings demonstrate that distinguishing heterotrophic respiration and autotrophic respiration would allow us better understand and predict the long‐term response of soil respiration to warming. The dependence of soil respiration on soil moisture condition also underscores the importance of incorporating warming‐induced soil hydrological changes when modeling soil respiration under climate change.     

Distinguishing autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration based on diel oxygen change curves: revisiting Dr. Faustus

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南方型杨树人工林土壤呼吸及其组分分析

采用开沟隔离法,利用LI-8100型土壤呼吸测定系统,对15年生的南方型杨树(Populus deltoides)人工林土壤呼吸进行了研究,并试图区分根系呼吸和土壤微生物呼吸。结果表明,开沟隔离处理后的10个月内,由于土壤中被截断根系具有自养呼吸和分解作用,土壤呼吸中的根系呼吸与微生物呼吸尚难以区分。尽管如此,研究表明15年生杨树人工林的土壤总呼吸通量为9.74 tC.hm-.2a-1,其中,枯枝落叶等土壤表层凋落物分解所释放的碳通量是2.63 tC.hm-.2a-1,占总量的27.0%;林木根系呼吸与土壤微生物呼吸通量的和为7.11 tC.hm-.2a-1,占总量的73.0%。土壤各组分呼吸速率与10 cm深处的土壤温度之间存在着显著的指数函数关系。不同直径的杨树根系被截断后的活力变化有所不同,根系越粗,存活时间越长。     

Nutrient dynamics throughout the rotation of Eucalyptus clonal stands in Congo

The dynamics of the main nutrient fluxes of the biological cycle were quantified in a clonal Eucalyptus plantation throughout the whole planted crop rotation: current annual requirements of nutrients, uptake from the soil, internal translocations within trees, return to soil (litterfall and crown leaching) and decomposition in the forest floor. As reported for other species, two growth periods were identified in these short-rotation plantations: (1) a juvenile phase up to canopy closure, during which the uptake of nutrients from the soil reserves supplied most of the current requirements; and (2) a second phase up to harvest, characterized by intense nutrient recycling processes. Internal translocation within trees supplied about 30 % of the annual requirements of N and P from 2 years of age onwards, and about 50 % of the K requirement. The mineralization of large amounts of organic matter returned to the soil with litterfall during stand development represented a key process providing nutrients to the stand at the end of the rotation. The importance of the recycling processes was clearly shown by the small amounts of nutrients permanently immobilized in the ligneous components of trees, compared with the total requirements accumulated over the stand rotation which were two to four times higher. Small pools of nutrients circulating quickly in the ecosystem made it possible to produce high amounts of biomass in poor soils. The sustainability of these plantations will require fertilizer inputs that match the changes in soil fertility over successive rotations, mainly linked to the dynamics of organic matter in this tropical soil.     

Ecosystem carbon exchange in two terrestrial ecosystem mesocosms under changing atmospheric CO2 concentrations

The ecosystem-level carbon uptake and respiration were measured under different CO₂ concentrations in the tropical rainforest and the coastal desert of Biosphere 2, a large enclosed facility. When the mesocosms were sealed and subjected to step-wise changes in atmospheric CO₂ between daily means of 450 and 900 μmol mol⁻¹, net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO₂ was derived using the diurnal changes in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. The step-wise CO₂ treatment was effectively replicated as indicated by the high repeatability of NEE measurements under similar CO₂ concentrations over a 12-week period. In the rainforest mesocosm, daily NEE was increased significantly by the high CO₂ treatments because of much higher enhancement of canopy CO₂ assimilation relative to the increase in the nighttime ecosystem respiration under high CO₂. Furthermore, the response of daytime NEE to increasing atmospheric CO₂ in this mesocosm was not linear, with a saturation concentration of 750 μmol mol⁻¹. In the desert mesocosm, a combination of a reduction in ecosystem respiration and a small increase in canopy CO₂ assimilation in the high CO₂ treatments also enhanced daily NEE. Although soil respiration was not affected by the short-term change in atmospheric CO₂ in either mesocosm, plant dark respiration was increased significantly by the high CO₂ treatments in the rainforest mesocosm while the opposite was found in the desert mesocosm. The high CO₂ treatments increased the ecosystem light compensation points in both mesocosms. High CO₂ significantly increased ecosystem radiation use efficiency in the rainforest mesocosm, but had a much smaller effect in the desert mesocosm. The desert mesocosm showed much lower absolute response in NEE to atmospheric CO₂ than the rainforest mesocosm, probably because of the presence of C₄ plants. This study illustrates the importance of large-scale experimental research in the study of complex global change issues. Received: 30 October 1998 / Accepted: 2 December 1998     

施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸和异养呼吸及其温度敏感性的影响

油茶是中国南方重要的木本食用油料树种,研究施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸及其温度敏感性的影响,对于估算中国南方典型种植园林温室气体排放及其对气候变化的响应具有重要意义。设置对照(CK)、施肥(OF)、断根(CK-T)和断根施肥(OF-T)4个处理,采用静态箱-气相色谱法,通过多年观测,分析探讨施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸和异养呼吸及其温度敏感性的影响。结果表明:(1)施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸和异养呼吸无显著影响。研究期间,各处理(OF、CK、OF-T、CK-T)土壤CO_2通量依次为(77.91±2.59)、(73.71±0.97)、(66.82±1.02)mg C m~(-2)h~(-1)和(66.84±3.94)mg C m~(-2)h~(-1);(2)各处理土壤呼吸温度敏感性(Q_(10))表现为OF-T(1.96±0.01)CK-T(1.79±0.03)OF(1.77±0.01)CK(1.75±0.03),其中,OF-T处理下Q_(10)显著高于其他3个处理,即施肥显著增加了断根处理土壤呼吸Q_(10);(3)施肥显著增加了土壤表层NH_4~+-N和NO_3~--N含量,Q_(10)与土壤表层NH_4~+-N和NO_3~--N含量表现出显著的正相关关系。     

Diversity of understory birds in old stands of native and Eucalyptus plantations

We compared the vegetation structure between old (>70 year) stands of planted diversified native forests and stands of Eucalyptus tereticornis embedded in a mosaic of Eucalyptus stands. We then tested for differences in the abundance, species richness, species composition, and ecological traits (forest dependence, sensitivity to forest fragmentation, and diet) of the understory bird assemblages inhabiting both kinds of stands. We expected differences in the structure of the bird assemblages because of the different origins and management strategies (contrary to native stands, Eucalyptus stands were selectively logged in the past). Three stands of each habitat (native and Eucalyptus) were sampled with mist nets during 11 months. Eucalyptus stands had a denser understory, whereas native plantations had a more developed vertical structure and a greater density of native trees. The abundance distribution of bird species was more homogeneous in Eucalyptus than in native stands. Eucalyptus had slightly higher species richness (36 species) than native stands (32 species). The composition of species and the occurrence of the diet, forest dependence, and sensitivity to forest fragmentation categories were similar between habitats. Some bird species (e.g. Turdus leucomelas), however, were more abundant in one habitat over the other. Old stands of Eucalyptus and planted native forest can harbor a diverse bird community similar in structure but not exactly equivalent for individual bird species. Planting native diversified forests and keeping set‐aside stands of the exotic tree should be viewed as complementary rather than alternative strategies for maintaining bird diversity within plantations.     

Autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration in needle fir and Quercus-dominated stands in a cool-temperate forest, central Korea

To investigate annual variation in soil respiration (R _S) and its components [autotrophic (R _A) and heterotrophic (R _H)] in relation to seasonal changes in soil temperature (ST) and soil water content (SWC) in an Abies holophylla stand (stand A) and a Quercus-dominated stand (stand Q), we set up trenched plots and measured R _S, ST and SWC for 2 years. The mean annual rate of R _S was 436 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹, ranging from 76 to 1,170 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹, in stand A and 376 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹, ranging from 82 to 1,133 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹, in stand Q. A significant relationship between R _S and its components and ST was observed over the 2 years in both stands, whereas a significant correlation between R _A and SWC was detected only in stand Q. On average over the 2 years, R _A accounted for approximately 34% (range 17–67%) and 31% (15–82%) of the variation in R _S in stands A and Q, respectively. Our results suggested that vegetation type did not significantly affect the annual mean contributions of R _A or R _H, but did affect the pattern of seasonal change in the contribution of R _A to R _S.     

Carbon sequestration and ecosystem respiration for 4 years in a Scots pine forest

The net exchange of CO₂ (NEE) between a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest ecosystem in eastern Finland and the atmosphere was measured continuously by the eddy covariance (EC) technique over 4 years (1999–2002). The annual temperature coefficient (Q₁₀) of ecosystem respiration (R) for these years, respectively, was 2.32, 2.66, 2.73 and 2.69. The light‐saturated rate of photosynthesis (A_max) was highest in July or August, with an annual average A_max of 10.9, 14.6, 15.3 and 17.1 μmol m^?2 s^?1 in the 4 years, respectively. There was obvious seasonality in NEE, R and gross primary production (GPP), exhibiting a similar pattern to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and air temperature. The integrated daily NEE ranged from 2.59 to ?4.97 g C m^?2 day^?1 in 1999, from 2.70 to ?4.72 in 2000, from 2.61 to ?4.71 in 2001 and from 5.27 to ?4.88 in 2002. The maximum net C uptake occurred in July, with the exception of 2000, when it was in June. The interannual variation in ecosystem C flux was pronounced. The length of the growing season, based on net C uptake, was 179, 170, 175 and 176 days in 1999–2002, respectively, and annual net C sequestration was 152, 101, 172 and 205 g C m^?2 yr^?1. It is estimated that ecosystem respiration contributed 615, 591, 752 and 879 g C m^?2 yr^?1 to the NEE in these years, leading to an annual GPP of ?768, ?692, ?924 and ?1084 g C m^?2 yr^?1. It is concluded that temperature and PAR were the main determinants of the ecosystem CO₂ flux. Interannual variations in net C sequestration are predominantly controlled by average air temperature and integrated radiation in spring and summer. Four years of EC data indicate that boreal Scots pine forest ecosystem in eastern Finland acts as a relatively powerful carbon sink. Carbon sequestration may benefit from warmer climatic conditions.     

Changes in arbuscular mycorrhizal associations and fine root traits in sites under different plant successional phases in southern Brazil

Fine root morphological traits and distribution, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, soil fertility, and nutrient concentration in fine root tissue were compared in sites under different successional phases: grass plants, secondary forest, and mature forest in Londrina county, Paraná state, southern Brazil. Soil cores were collected randomly at the 0-10- and 10-20-cm depths in three quadrants (50 m2) in each site. Plants from the different successional stages displayed high differences in fine root distribution, fine root traits, and mycorrhizal root colonization. There were increases in the concentration of nutrients both in soil and fine roots and decrease of bulk soil density along the succession. The fine root biomass and diameter increased with the succession progress. The total fine root length, specific root length, root hair length, and root hair incidence decreased with the succession advance. Similarly, the mycorrhizal root colonization and the density of AM fungi spores in the soil decreased along the succession. Mycorrhizal root colonization and spore density were positively correlated with fine root length, specific root length, root hair length, root hair incidence, and bulk density and negatively correlated with fine root diameter and concentration of some nutrients both in soil and root tissues. Nutrient concentration in root tissue and in soil was positively correlated with fine root diameter and negatively correlated with specific root length, root hair length, and root hair incidence. These results suggest different adaptation strategies of plant roots for soil exploration and mineral acquisition among the different successional stages. Early successional stages displayed plants with fine root morphology and AM fungi colonization to improve the root functional efficiencies for uptake of nutrients and faster soil resource exploration. Late successional stages displayed plants with fine root morphology and mycorrhizal symbiosis for both a lower rate of soil proliferation and soil exploration capacity to acquire nutrients.     

格氏栲天然林与人工林根系呼吸季节动态及影响因素

通过用挖壕沟 静态碱吸收法对福建三明格氏栲天然林及33年生格氏栲和杉木人工林的根系呼吸进行为期2a定位研究。不同森林根系呼吸速率季节变化均呈单峰曲线,最大值出现在春末或夏初,最小值出现在冬季。1年中格氏栲天然林、格氏栲人工林和杉木人工林根系呼吸速率变化范围分别在157.76~480.40mgCO2/(m2·h)、53.03~339.45mgCO2/(m2·h)和16.66~228.02mgCO2/(m2·h)之间。在近似正常气候状况的2002年,不同森林根系呼吸主要受土壤温度影响(R2=0.52~0.72);而土壤温度和土壤湿度共同则可解释根系呼吸速率季节变化的81%~90%。在极端干旱的2003年,根系呼吸受土壤温度或湿度的影响较小,土壤温度和土壤湿度共同仅能解释根系呼吸变化的24%~60%,这与根系在持续干旱期间长期处于近休眠状态有关。根系呼吸对土壤温度和土壤湿度的敏感性大小顺序均为杉木人工林>格氏栲人工林>格氏栲天然林。格氏栲天然林根系呼吸占土壤呼吸比例(47.6%)均高于格氏栲和杉木人工林的(42.5%和40.2%),不同森林根系呼吸占土壤呼吸比例均以冬季最低,而以5月或6月最高。格氏栲天然林、格氏栲人工林和杉木人工林根系呼吸年通量分别为6.537、4.013和1.828tC/(m2·h)。     

Woody-tissue respiration for Simarouba amara and Minquartia guianensis,two tropical wet forest trees with different growth habits

We measured CO₂ efflux from stems of two tropical wet forest trees, both found in the canopy, but with very different growth habits. The species were Simarouba amara, a fast-growing species associated with gaps in old-growth forest and abundant in secondary forest, and Minquartia guianensis, a slow-growing species tolerant of low-light conditions in old-growth forest. Per unit of bole surface, CO₂ efflux averaged 1.24 mol m^–2 s^–1 for Simarouba and 0.83 mol m^–2s^–1 for Minquartia. CO₂ efflux was highly correlated with annual wood production (r ²=0.65), but only weakly correlated with stem diameter (r ²=0.22). We also partitioned the CO₂ efflux into the functional components of construction and maintenance respiration. Construction respiration was estimated from annual stem dry matter production and maintenance respiration by subtracting construction respiration from the instantaneous CO₂ flux. Estimated maintenance respiration was linearly related to sapwood volume (39.6 mol m^–3s^–1 at 24.6° C, r ²=0.58), with no difference in the rate for the two species. Maintenance respiration per unit of sapwood volume for these tropical wet forest trees was roughly twice that of temperate conifers. A model combining construction and maintenance respiration estimated CO₂ very well for these species (r ²=0.85). For our sample, maintenance respiration was 54% of the total CO₂ efflux for Simarouba and 82% for Minquartia. For our sample, sapwood volume averaged 23% of stem volume when weighted by tree size, or 40% with no size weighting. Using these fractions, and a published estimate of aboveground dry-matter production, we estimate the annual cost of woody tissue respiration for primary forest at La Selva to be 220 or 350 g C m^–2 year^–1, depending on the assumed sapwood volume. These costs are estimated to be less than 13% of the gross production for the forest.     

森林固碳释氧服务价值与异养呼吸损失量评估

固碳释氧是森林最重要的生态系统服务之一,将森林碳收支与固碳释氧服务价值评估相结合对于准确评估生态系统服务价值具有重要意义。应用森林碳收支模型(CBM-CFS3),分别基于净初级生产力(NPP)和净生态系统生产力(NEP)评估了2009—2030年湖北省兴山县森林生态系统总、净固碳释氧服务价值的时空动态,量化了异养呼吸造成的固碳释氧服务价值损失。模拟期间兴山县森林生态系统NPP逐渐增加(0.46—0.70 Tg/a),NEP由0.12 Tg/a先增加至0.21 Tg/a,然后逐渐下降至0.18 Tg/a;所对应的森林总、净固碳释氧服务价值范围分别为7.59—11.53亿元/a和2.21—3.70亿元/a。异养呼吸逐年增加,导致固碳释氧价值每年损失平均值为7.29亿元/a或4509元hm~(-2) a~(-1),约占总价值的68.6%。兴山县东南部异养呼吸造成的森林固碳释氧服务价值损失较高,而中部及西南部森林净固碳释氧价值较高。模拟期间兴山县森林为碳汇,稳定地提供固碳释氧服务。与NPP相比,使用NEP评估固碳释氧服务价值更为合理。忽视异养呼吸将严重高估森林生态系统固碳释氧服务价值;因而必须将物质循环过程与生态系统服务评估相结合,以降低评估结果的不确定性、提高生态系统服务的评估能力。     

Soil respiration and microbial population in a tropical deciduous forest soil of Orissa, India

An investigation was carried out to estimate soil respiration rate and its relationship with microbial population in natural tropical forest soil, deforested soil and deforested-and-cultivated soil of Orissa, India. Soil respiration measurements and microbial isolation were performed following standard procedures. Monthly variation of soil respiration was observed to be governed by soil moisture. Considering respiration as a function of microbial population a regression analysis was made. The microfungal population showed positive relationship with the rate of soil respiration. The study revealed that conversion of natural forest led to a reduction of soil microbes and rate of soil respiration. Considering the importance of the microbial component in soil, we conclude that the conversion of natural forests to different land uses leads to the loss of biological stability of the soil.     

Structure and floristics of secondary and old-growth forest stands in lowland Costa Rica

We characterized stand structure and floristic composition of woody life forms in three, 16–18 yr old secondary stands that regenerated after pasture abandonment, and three nearby old-growth stands of tropical rain forest in lowland Costa Rica. Basal area and stem density for each of four plant size classes (seedlings, saplings, treelets, trees) were similar among stand types, but density of adult canopy palms (individuals 10 cm DBH), was lower in the secondary stands. We estimate that 15% of the basal area of stems 10 cm DBH correspond to remnant trees in our secondary stands. The observed rapid woody regrowth compared to other published studies in the lowland neotropics, can be attributed to moderate land use and possibly, to the influence of nutrient-rich volcanic soils in the study area. Overall, plant species richness was lower in the secondary stands, but this difference was less pronounced in the smallest size classes (seedlings, saplings). Median percent similarity of all pairwise stand comparisons showed that floristic composition of saplings (stems 1 m tall and 5 cm DBH) was more similar between secondary and old-growth stands than for trees (stems 10 cm DBH). Because the potential value of secondary forests in conserving woody plant diversity appears highest for the young size classes, we suggest that further studies on floristic composition, especially those addressing the dynamics of the understory component, are needed to refine our understanding of the role of this natural resource in the maintenance of plant biodiversity in disturbed landscapes.     

Interactive effects of understory removal and fertilization on soil respiration in subtropical Eucalyptus plantations

Aims It has been well recognized that understory vegetation plays an important role in driving forest ecosystem processes and functioning. In subtropical plantation forests, understory removal and fertilization have been widely applied; however, our understanding on how understory removal affects soil respiration and how the process is regulated by fertilization is limited. Here, we conducted an understory removal experiment combined with fertilization to evaluate the effects of the two forest management practices and their interactions on soil respiration in subtropical forest in southern China.Methods The study was conducted in a split-plot design with fertilization as the whole-plot factor, understory removal as the subplot factor and block as the random factor in subtropical Eucalyptus plantations. In total, there were four treatments: control with unfertilized and intact understory (CK), understory removal but without fertilization (UR), with fertilization but without understory removal (FT) and with fertilization + understory removal (FT + UR). Eucalyptus above- and belowground biomass increment, fine root biomass, soil temperature, soil moisture and soil respiration were measured in the present study. Understory respiration (R U) was quantified in different ways: R u = R CK ? R UR or R u = R FT ? R (FT + UR); fertilization increased soil respiration (R FI) was also quantified in different ways: R FI = R FT ? R CK or R FI = R (FT + UR) ? R UR .Important findings Over a 2-year experiment, our data indicate that understory removal significantly decreased soil respiration, while fertilization increased soil respiration. Understory removal decreased soil respiration by 28.8% under fertilization, but only 15.2% without fertilization. Fertilization significantly increased soil respiration by 23.6% with the presence of understory vegetation, and only increased by 3.7% when understory was removed, indicating that fertilization increased soil respiration mainly by increasing the contribution of the understory. Our study advances our understanding of the interactive effects of understory management and fertilization on soil respiration in subtropical plantations.     

Rhizospheric and heterotrophic components of soil respiration in six Chinese temperate forests

Partitioning soil respiration (R_S) into heterotrophic (R_H) and rhizospheric (R_R) components is an important step for understanding and modeling carbon cycling in forest ecosystems, but few studies on R_R and R_H exist in Chinese temperate forests. In this study, we used a trenching plot approach to partition R_S in six temperate forests in northeastern China. Our specific objectives were to (1) examine seasonal patterns of soil surface CO₂ fluxes from trenched (R_T) and untrenched plots (R_UT) of these forests; (2) quantify annual fluxes of R_S components and their relative contributions in the forest ecosystems; and (3) examine effects of plot trenching on measurements of R_S and related environmental factors. The R_T maximized in early growing season, but the difference between R_UT and R_T peaked in later summer. The annual fluxes of R_H and R_R varied with forest types. The estimated values of R_H for the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis Sieb. et Zucc.), Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii Rupr.), aspen‐birch (Populous davidiana Dode and Betula platyphylla Suk.), hardwood (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr., Juglans mandshurica Maxim. and Phellodendron amurense Rupr.), Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica Fisch.) and mixed deciduous (no dominant tree species) forests averaged 89, 196, 187, 245, 261 and 301 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹, respectively; those of R_R averaged 424, 209, 628, 538, 524 and 483 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹, correspondingly; calculated contribution of R_R to R_S (RC) varied from 52% in the larch forest to 83% in the pine forest. The annual flux of R_R was strongly correlated to biomass of roots <0.5 cm in diameter, while that of R_H was weakly correlated to soil organic carbon concentration at A horizon. We concluded that vegetation type and associated carbon metabolisms of temperate forests should be considered in assessing and modeling R_S components. The significant impacts of changed soil physical environments and substrate availability by plot trenching should be appropriately tackled in analyzing and interpreting measurements of R_S components.     

Separation of root and heterotrophic respiration within soil respiration by trenching, root biomass regression, and root excising methods in a cool-temperate deciduous forest in Japan

Trenching (Tr), root biomass regression (RR), and root excising (RE) methods were used to estimate the contribution of root (RR) and heterotrophic (HR) respiration to soil respiration (SR) in a cool-temperate deciduous forest in central Japan. The contribution ratios of RR to SR were 23 % (?16 to 46 %), 11 % (?19 to 61 %), and 115 % (20 to 393 %), as estimated by the Tr, RR, and RE methods, respectively. The contribution ratio showed clear seasonal variation with high values in summer for the Tr method, while they were undetectable for the RR and RE methods because of some methodological problems. These results suggest the Tr method is the best of the three methods used to estimate the contribution ratio of RR and HR to SR in the forest. Annual SR, RR, and HR rates, estimated by the Tr method, were 479, 369, 110 gC m^?2 year^?1, respectively. The seasonal variation of SR was mainly influenced by HR (77 %) throughout the year, while the influence of RR on SR was strongest in summer (46 %). This effect occurred because RR (Q ₁₀ = 7.5) is more sensitive to temperature than HR (Q ₁₀ = 3.2). Also, the contribution of fine RR to total RR was higher than that of coarse RR because of high respiratory activity (Q ₁₀ and R ₁₀) as well as the large biomass of fine roots. These results suggest that each component of SR responds differently to the same environmental factors and their relative influence on SR changes across the seasons.     

Allocation to defense or growth in dipterocarp forest seedlings in Borneo

We quantified the allocation of net production to plant secondary metabolites (especially condensed tannins and lignins) to evaluate the investment into defense mechanisms of three tropical forest canopy species in Borneo vis-à-vis the resource availability hypothesis. In particular, we focused on Borneo ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri, Lauraceae), which seemed to employ an extreme defensive strategy. The wood of this species is extremely durable and has a high specific gravity with a very slow growth rate. The allocation to defense by Borneo ironwood was compared to two emergent species of Dipterocarpaceae, the dominant family in this forest community. We conducted shade-house experiments on seedlings under four controlled conditions (two light levels × two nutrient levels) and showed that the growth rate of E. zwageri was much lower than those of the other two species, and it allocated more of its net production to leaves and roots than to stems. The concentrations of condensed tannins and lignins were very high in the leaves and stems of this species, at about 20 and 30%, respectively. In total, E. zwageri allocated a maximum of about 35% of its net production to defensive substances (i.e., condensed tannins + lignins). In contrast, the two dipterocarp species allocated about 20–25% of their net production to defensive substances. The condensed tannins in E. zwageri help to prolong the lifespan of the leaves, and the lignins in the stems enhance the durability of the wood. Thus, although E. zwageri grows very slowly, the allocation to defensive substances seems to be an advantageous strategy for survival under dark conditions.An erratum to this article can be found at