真核生物来源漆酶的异源表达研究进展

漆酶属于多铜氧化酶家族中的一种,广泛存在于昆虫、植物、真菌和细菌中。由于其作用的底物范围较广,因此在纺织、制浆、食品以及木质素的降解等方面有广阔的应用前景。但是自然界中的漆酶存在表达量和酶活低、高温易失活等问题,限制了它的应用。对漆酶进行大量高效的异源表达,是解决这一问题的有效途径。近年来,越来越多不同来源的漆酶基因被克隆,并在不同宿主中异源表达。但这些大多局限于实验室研究,还未达到工业化生产的水平。笔者对真核生物来源漆酶的异源表达研究进展进行综述,重点介绍了真核生物来源的漆酶在不同表达系统中的异源表达情况以及在酵母细胞中表达漆酶时提高表达量和酶活性能的方法,以期为研究者们提供参考。     

真菌漆酶性质、分子生物学及其应用研究进展

漆酶是一种含铜的多酚氧化酶。目前发现多种生物能够产生漆酶,包括植物、真菌、昆虫和细菌等,其中,以真菌中的白腐真菌研究最多。由于漆酶在生物漂白、农作物秸秆利用以及环境污染处理等方面具有广阔的应用前景,漆酶研究受到越来越多的关注。同时,随着分子生物学技术的发展,漆酶研究已经深入到基因水平,多种漆酶基因已经成功获得克隆,一些漆酶基因也实现了异源表达。现针对真菌漆酶的生物学性质、分子生物学及其应用的研究进展进行了概括总结,并对其前景进行了展望。     

真菌漆酶基因研究进展

漆酶是一种含铜的多酚氧化酶,也是木质素生物合成的关键酶之一,目前已发现多种生物能产生漆酶,包括植物、真菌、昆虫、细菌等。其中,以真菌中的白腐菌研究最多。近年来,由于漆酶在生物漂白、农作物秸秆利用以及环境垃圾处理方面具有广阔的应用前景,漆酶研究越来越受到国际上的重视。同时,随着分子生物学相关技术的发展,漆酶研究已深入基因水平,已有多种漆酶基因获得克隆,一些漆酶基因也实现了异源表达。本文概述了真菌漆酶基因研究的最新进展。     

真菌漆酶及其应用

漆酶是一种含铜多酚氧化酶,在白腐菌中普遍存在,少数低等真菌和植物中也产生,多为分泌型糖蛋白。至少20种漆酶得到了分离和纯化。该酶是一种氨基酸残基在500个左右的单体酶,一般都为酸性蛋白,含有4个铜离子,形成3个活性区域;表面一些氨基酸被不同程度地糖基化。晶体结构和其它一些波谱学研究解释了其空间结构和可能的电子传递机制。运用PCR技术和cDNA文库技术,越来越多的漆酶基因被克隆,许多来源的基因都是以家族形式存在于染色体上的。已研究的漆酶基因中都含有10个左右的内含子,这些内含子在活性域位置上有比较高的保守性。一些特殊序列的存在与否决定了该酶的表达形式-诱导型或组成型,诱导型菌株的调控序列中含有一段受酚类化合物作用的序列,而不含有该序列的酶基因则都是组成型表达的。漆酶在S.cerevisiae、Trichodermareesei、A.oryzaeTATAamylase和Pichiapasti等异源表达系统中有成功表达的报道。漆酶的应用集中在以下几方面:漆酶参与的有机合成;生物检测;有毒化合物的消除;工业废水处理;纸浆的生物漂白;等等。     

漆酶可降解底物种类的研究进展

漆酶是一种含铜离子的多酚氧化酶,广泛存在于植物及真菌中。漆酶含特有的铜离子,其功能为传递结构中的电子,使漆酶具有了较强的氧化还原能力,能与木质素、胺类化合物、芳香化合物等底物发生作用,且大多数反应的唯一产物为水。目前,漆酶在降解多种有毒物质和有害污染物方面表现出高效、成本较低的特性,如白腐真菌所产的高水平漆酶已广泛成熟应用在工业废水处理等生物整治和修复领域。近年来最新研究利用载体固定化酶的技术使漆酶能够在使用后回收反复利用且更具有稳定性,这降低成本的同时还保持了漆酶催化氧化的特性,克服了不少漆酶在解决环境污染中出现的问题。利用介体的介导作用解决了漆酶氧化还原电势较低的问题,大量增多了可降解底物的种类,使其在废水处理、污染物降解、土壤修复、工业染料漂白等领域的应用前景更广阔。对现有漆酶应用于各领域进行研究总结,综述了降解各领域中的有害污染物等底物种类,提出了利用漆酶的降解过程中的现有不足和改进方向,以期为生物法降解环境污染物的研究提供参考。     

真菌漆酶及其应用

漆酶是一种含铜多酚氧化酶,在白腐菌中普遍存在,少数低等真菌和植物中也产生,多为分泌型糖蛋白,至少20种漆酶得到了分离和纯化。该酶是一种氨基酸残基在500个左右的单体酶,一般都为酸性蛋白,含有4个铜离子,形成3个活性区域。表面一些氨基酸被不同程度地糖基化,晶体结构和其它一些波谱学研究解释了其空间结构和可能的电子传递机制,运用PCR技术和cDNA文库技术,越来越多的漆酶基因被克隆,许多来源的基因都是以家族形式存在于染色体上的。已研究的漆酶基因中都含有10个左右的内含子,这些内含子在活性域位置上有比较高的保守性。一些特殊序列的存在与否决定了该酶的表达形式－诱导型或组成型,诱导型菌株的调控序列中含有一段受酚类化合物作用的序列,而不含有该序列的酶基因则都是组成型表达的。漆酶在S.cervisiae,Trichnoderma reesei,A.oryzae TATA amylase和Pichia pasti等异源表达系统中有成功表达的报道。漆酶的应用集中在在以下几方面：漆酶参与的有机合成,生物检测,有毒化合物的消除。工业废水处理,纸浆的生物漂白;等等。     

草菇漆酶基因vv-lac1和vv-lac6的克隆及异源表达

【目的】克隆草菇漆酶基因vv-lac1和vv-lac6的全长cDNA,证实其编码的蛋白具有漆酶活性,最终建立草菇漆酶基因的异源表达及纯化体系。【方法】利用RACE技术克隆全长cDNA序列,并利用生物信息学技术进行序列分析,在此基础上,去除全长cDNA的编码信号肽的序列并在3'端添加His-tag碱基序列,把修饰后的cDNA片段克隆到表达载体pPIC9K上,并转化到毕赤酵母GS115中进行表达,对重组蛋白利用Ni柱进行分离纯化并以ABTS底物法检测重组蛋白的漆酶活性。【结果】vv-lac1和vv-lac6的全长cDNA的长度分别为1599 bp和1554 bp,且分别含有19和15个外显子;其编码的蛋白的理论分子量分别是57.3 kDa和56.3 kDa,理论等电点分别为4.73和5.62,且都属于分泌型的胞外蛋白;表达出的重组蛋白RBvvlac1和RBvvlac6,其分子量大小约为70 kDa,说明存在翻译后修饰;含有150 mmol/L咪唑的缓冲液对RBvvlac1和RBvvlac6发酵液进行洗脱所得到的蛋白溶液具有最高漆酶活性(333.17 U/L和227.63 U/L)。【结论】草菇漆酶基因vv-lac1和vv-lac6能够编码有活性的漆酶蛋白,本研究建立的异源表达及纯化体系适用于草菇或其它漆酶基因的异源表达与纯化。     

梯棱羊肚菌AA1_2家族多铜氧化酶基因的异源表达与生化鉴定

典型的漆酶通常属于辅助活性酶第一家族第一亚族（auxiliary activity family 1 subfamily 1,简称AA1_1家族）,而AA1_2家族的多铜氧化酶通常拥有将二价铁氧化成三价铁的活性,部分AA1_2家族酶蛋白兼具漆酶活性。梯棱羊肚菌全基因组只有一个AA1_2家族酶基因,该基因编码的酶蛋白是否拥有漆酶功能尚未清楚。本研究主要从酶生化特性的角度,结合酶基因的表达规律,对该基因的功能进行初探。对该AA1_2家族基因在梯棱羊肚菌生长发育不同阶段的表达水平进行实时定量PCR检测;将该基因编码序列克隆到表达载体中在大肠杆菌中异源表达,层析获得纯化的酶蛋白,对酶蛋白的生化特性进行了鉴定。发现该AA1_2多铜氧化酶基因在外源营养袋和土壤中的营养菌丝里低表达,在菇原基和子实体中表达较活跃。异源表达获得纯化的酶蛋白分子量约64kDa,表现出亚铁氧化酶（EC 1.16.3.1）与漆酶（EC 1.10.3.2）双重活性。其亚铁氧化酶活性在pH 4最高,漆酶活性在pH 6最高。亚铁氧化酶活性与漆酶活性的最适温度均为30℃左右,在30℃温育16h后仍保留70%以上活性。亚铁氧化酶和漆酶活性受Mn ²⁺、Hg ²⁺和Pb ²⁺抑制。对蛋白质变性剂SDS、尿素的耐受性较强。本研究通过酶学证据证实了梯棱羊肚菌AA1_2家族多铜氧化酶基因编码的酶蛋白具有亚铁氧化酶-漆酶双重活性,系在子囊菌大型真菌中首次发现,为进一步研究铁元素代谢与漆酶活性在羊肚菌子实体形成与发育过程中的作用提供了启示。     

影响真菌漆酶表达及其活性的因素

丝状真菌同一菌株中存在动力学、理化特性各异的多个漆酶同工酶。金属离子,碳、氮等培养基成分,培养条件,以及异生物质、热休克处理和共培养的菌株等多种生物和非生物的因素对真菌漆酶同工酶表现出选择性诱导效应。影响真菌漆酶表达及其调控因素的研究能指导漆酶的选择性合成,以满足不同的应用需求。主要阐述影响真菌漆酶表达及其活性的因素的相关研究进展。     

漆酶的固定化及其在生物传感器方面的应用

漆酶是一类含铜的多酚氧化酶,它能够催化许多酚类和非酚类物质的氧化.固定化漆酶能改善漆酶的稳定性,实现酶制剂的重复连续使用,具有重要意义.该文综述了漆酶固定化的各种方法,阐述了漆酶相关活性、机械性能和功能等内容,并对漆酶固定化在生物传感器方面的应用作了介绍.     

Enhancement of copper content and specific activity of CotA laccase from Bacillus licheniformis by coexpression with CopZ copper chaperone in E. coli

Copper depletion of bacterial laccases obtained by heterologous expression in Escherichia coli is a common problem in production of these versatile biocatalysts. We demonstrate that coexpression of small soluble copper chaperones can mitigate this problem. The laccase CotA and the copper chaperone CopZ both from Bacillus licheniformis were used as model system. The use of the E. coli BL21(DE3) strain expressing CopZ and CotA simultaneously from two plasmids resulted in an 20% increase in copper occupancy and in 26% higher specific activity. We conclude that not only intracellular copper ion concentration, but also presence of an appropriate copper chaperone influences copper ion insertion into CotA laccase. Moreover, E. coli BL21(DE3) seems to lack such a copper chaperone which can be partially complemented by heterologous expression thereof. The presented system is simple and can routinely be used for improved heterologous production of bacterial laccase in E. coli.     

A heterologous production of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trametes hirsuta</Emphasis> laccase in the fungus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penicillium canescens</Emphasis>

A heterologous protein expression in the fungus Penicillium canescens is described for the first time. The fungal strains producing Trametes hirsuta 072 accase under control of a highly efficient promoter of the P. canescens gene bgaS has been constructed. These strains efficiently transcribe the T. hirsuta 072 laccase gene with a correct intron splicing. Activity of the secreted heterologous laccase in the culture liquid reaches 3 U/ml, accounting for 98% of the total laccase activity, which demonstrates a high efficiency of heterologous secretion. The synthesized P. canescens laccase has the same molecular weight as the enzyme produced by T. hirsuta 072.     

Characterization and heterologous expression of laccase cDNAs from xylem tissues of yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera)

Four closely related cDNA clones encoding laccase isoenzymes from xylem tissues of yellow-poplar (Ltlacc2.1–4) were identified and sequenced. The inferred yellow-poplar laccase gene products were highly related to one another (79–91% at the amino acid level) and showed significant similarity to other blue copper oxidases, especially with respect to the copper-binding domains. The encoded proteins had N-terminal signal sequences and 17–19 potential N-linked glycosylation sites. The mature proteins were predicted to have molecular masses of ca. 61 kDa (unglycosylated) and high isoelectric points (pI 9.3–9.5). The canonical copper ligands were conserved, with the exception of a Leu residue associated with the axial position of the Type-1 cupric ion. The residue at this position has been proposed to influence the redox potential of Type-1 cupric ions. Northern blot analysis revealed that the yellow-poplar laccase genes are differentially expressed in xylem tissues. The genes were verified as encoding active laccases by heterologous expression in tobacco cells and demonstration of laccase activity in extracts from transformed tobacco cell lines.     

Functional expression of a fungal laccase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by directed evolution

Laccase from Myceliophthora thermophila (MtL) was expressed in functional form in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Directed evolution improved expression eightfold to the highest yet reported for a laccase in yeast (18 mg/liter). Together with a 22-fold increase in k(cat), the total activity was enhanced 170-fold. Specific activities of MtL mutants toward 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) and syringaldazine indicate that substrate specificity was not changed by the introduced mutations. The most effective mutation (10-fold increase in total activity) introduced a Kex2 protease recognition site at the C-terminal processing site of the protein, adjusting the protein sequence to the different protease specificities of the heterologous host. The C terminus is shown to be important for laccase activity, since removing it by a truncation of the gene reduces activity sixfold. Mutations accumulated during nine generations of evolution for higher activity decreased enzyme stability. Screening for improved stability in one generation produced a mutant more stable than the heterologous wild type and retaining the improved activity. The molecular mass of MtL expressed in S. cerevisiae is 30% higher than that of the same enzyme expressed in M. thermophila (110 kDa versus 85 kDa). Hyperglycosylation, corresponding to a 120-monomer glycan on one N-glycosylation site, is responsible for this increase. This S. cerevisiae expression system makes MtL available for functional tailoring by directed evolution.     

Simplified high-throughput screening of AOX1-expressed laccase enzyme in Pichia pastoris

The heterologous protein expression in Pichia pastoris under the control of alcohol oxidase (AOX1)promoter comprises two steps, the growth and induction phases, which are time-consuming and technically demanding. Here, we describe an alternate method where expression is carried out directly in the methanol-containing medium. Using this method, we were successful in screening high-activity laccase clones from a library of laccase mutants generated by random mutagenesis. This simplified method not only saves time but also is highly efficient and can be used for screening a large number of clones.     

A Novel Lentinula edodes Laccase and Its Comparative Enzymology Suggest Guaiacol-Based Laccase Engineering for Bioremediation

Laccases are versatile biocatalysts for the bioremediation of various xenobiotics, including dyes and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. However, current sources of new enzymes, simple heterologous expression hosts and enzymatic information (such as the appropriateness of common screening substrates on laccase engineering) remain scarce to support efficient engineering of laccase for better “green” applications. To address the issue, this study began with cloning the laccase family of Lentinula edodes. Three laccases perfectio sensu stricto (Lcc4A, Lcc5, and Lcc7) were then expressed from Pichia pastoris, characterized and compared with the previously reported Lcc1A and Lcc1B in terms of kinetics, stability, and degradation of dyes and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Lcc7 represented a novel laccase, and it exhibited both the highest catalytic efficiency (assayed with 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) [ABTS]) and thermostability. However, its performance on “green” applications surprisingly did not match the activity on the common screening substrates, namely, ABTS and 2,6-dimethoxyphenol. On the other hand, correlation analyses revealed that guaiacol is much better associated with the decolorization of multiple structurally different dyes than are the two common screening substrates. Comparison of the oxidation chemistry of guaiacol and phenolic dyes, such as azo dyes, further showed that they both involve generation of phenoxyl radicals in laccase-catalyzed oxidation. In summary, this study concluded a robust expression platform of L. edodes laccases, novel laccases, and an indicative screening substrate, guaiacol, which are all essential fundamentals for appropriately driving the engineering of laccases towards more efficient “green” applications.     

Fermentation strategies for improved heterologous expression of laccase in Pichia pastoris

Improved expression of recombinant laccase by Pichia pastoris carrying the lcc1 cDNA isolated from Trametes versicolor was achieved by optimization of the cultivation conditions in a fermentor equipped with a methanol sensor system. The results indicated that the activity obtained in fermentor cultivations was at least 7 times higher than in shake-flask cultures. Three different strategies for fermentor cultivations were compared: A (30 degrees C, 1.0% methanol), B (20 degrees C, 1.0% methanol), and C (20 degrees C, 0.5% methanol). The laccase activity, particularly the specific activity, could be improved by decreasing the cultivation temperature. The mechanisms behind the temperature effect on the laccase activity may be ascribed to poor stability, release of more proteases from dead cells, and folding problems at higher temperature. The results showed that the methanol concentration had a marked effect on the production of active heterologous laccase. A fivefold higher volumetric laccase activity was obtained when the methanol concentration was kept at 0.5% instead of 1.0%. The detrimental effect of methanol on the production of recombinant laccase may be attributed to lower laccase stability, a higher proteolytic activity, and folding problems due to higher growth rate at 1.0% methanol.