Aerobiological monitoring for fungal spores in a rehabilitation hospital in Northern Italy

In the setting of an aerobiological study of confined environments and environmental prevention of nosocomial infections, aerobiological monitoring of 22 areas in Montescano Medical Rehabilitation Centre (Pavia) was performed in three different months: February, May, and August, 1994. A Lanzoni 3000 spore trap was used for the monitoring. Examination of the results showed that, in the environments monitored, the indoor presence of fungi increased progressively over the three periods considered. The behaviour of individual genera of fungi differed. In the winter periodPenicillium andAspergillus were the most commonly encountered genera.Cladosporium was the dominant genus from the spring to the summer while the yeasts had their maximum counts in the spring morning. The use of air conditioning, combined with the low air exchange between outdoors and indoors in some of the environments certainly played a part in the low concentrations of these latter aerofungi.     

Identification and seasonal distribution of airborne fungi in three horse stables in Italy

Fungal agents are responsible for a variety of respiratory diseases both in humans and animals. The nature and seasonal variations of fungi have been investigated in many environments with wide ranging results. The aims of the present report were (i) to evaluate the quality and magnitude of exposure to airborne fungi in three differently structured equine stalls (open air, partially and completely enclosed buildings) during a one-year period, using an air sampling technique and (ii) to compare the distribution and frequency of fungal species, with regards to these different environments. Air samples were collected monthly from December 2001 to November 2002 by means of a surface air sampler (SAS) Super-90, (PBI International, Milan, Italy). Penicillium and Aspergillus spp. were cultured from all the stables in all seasons. Mucoraceae were also recovered in all seasons in stalls 1 and 2, while they were not isolated in spring and fall in stall 3. These fungi were detected in 28.4%, 72.9% and 60.5% of the total number of samples, respectively. Other fungal genera such as Alternaria, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Beauveria and Drechslera were also occasionally recovered.Viable fungal concentrations varied greatly, ranging from below the limit of detection to more than 3000 CFU/m³ for stables 1 and 2, and 1750 CFU/m³ for stable 3. The median fungal concentration was approximately 178 CFU/m³. Total fungal concentration appeared to be highest in summer, winter and spring, and lowest in the fall.     

Aerobiology in plant protection

Summary The control of phytopathogenic fungi in agriculture requires sometimes excessive chemical treatments because, in many cases, reliable monitoring systems in order to assess the real risk for the cultivations are not available.Therefore, the likelihood to assess the presence and the amount of phytophatogenic fungus propagules in the air with a spore-trap has been investigated in order to evaluate their correlation with the climate and the disease occurrence. Four phytopathogenic fungi, namelyVenturia inequalis, Phytophthora infestans, Cercospora beticola andDiaporthe phaseolorum var.caulivora were taken into consideration.Practical use of airborne spore monitoring in a disease control strategy proved to be useful only forVenturia inequalis andPhytophthora infestans causal agent of apple scab and tomato late blight respectively. For the latter, the utilisation of an aerobiological monitoring system for the disease prediction can be assumed.     

The aerobiological significance of smut spores in Tulsa,Oklahoma

Few aerobiological studies have focused on smut spores, teliospores of fungi within the order Ustilaginales, but the scientific literature provides evidence of the potential aerobiological significance of these plant pathogens. The atmosphere in Tulsa, Oklahoma was monitored for the presence of smut teliospores using a Burkard Volumetric Spore Trap. Smut spores were identified in the atmospheric samples every day from May to October during 1991 and 1992 at concentrations that were normally below 1000 spores/m³. The peak concentration observed during this study was almost 6000 spores/m³. Daily concentrations fluctuate due to a variety of factors such as precipitation, relative humidity, percent sunshine, and the phenology of fungi in relation to their hosts. In northeastern Oklahoma, the most prevalent species of smuts in the atmosphere during the spring includeSphacelotheca occidentalis, Ustilago tritici, andU. kolleri. In the fall, spores ofU. brumivora, U. bullata, andU. maydis are more common.     

The aerobiological significance of smut spores in Tulsa,Oklahoma

Few aerobiological studies have focused on smut spores, teliospores of fungi within the order Ustilaginales, but the scientific luterature provides evidence of the potential aerobiological significance of these plant pathogens. The atmosphere in Tulsa, Oklahoma was monitored for the presence of smut teliospores using a Burkard Volumetric Spore Trap. Smut spores were identified in the atmospheric samples every day from May to October during 1991 and 1992 at concentrations that were normally below 1000 spores/m³. The peak concentration observed during this study was almost 6000 spores/m³. Daily concentrations fluctuate due to a variety of factors such as precipitation, relative humidity, percent sunshine, and the phenology of fungi in relation to their hosts. In northeastern Oklahoma, the most prevalent species of smuts in the atmosphere during the spring includeSphacelotheca occidentalis, Ustilago tritici, andU. kolleri. In the fall, spores ofU. brumivora, U. bullata, andU. maydis are more common.     

Enumeration of airborne molds in some indoor environments of Madras city (India) by cultural and non-cultural volumetric samplers

The air mycoflora of six indoor environments in Madras city (India) has been investigated by sampling air with an Andersen sampler and a Burkard personal sampler. Forty-eight species assignable to 24 genera were recorded by Andersen sampler. Spores belonging to 14 genera in addition toPenicillium andAspergillus were identified from Burkard trap slides. Species ofAspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor andRhizopus were most frequently isolated in considerable numbers. As a single genusAspergillus ranked first followed byPenicillium at some sites, andCladosporium at some other sites. The predominance ofPenicillium andAspergillus was also confirmed by Burkard trap data. Spores belonging toGanoderma, Nigrospora, Epicoccum, andTetraploa were recorded only by Burkard sampler, thereby suggesting the necessity of using two complimentary spore traps, cultural and non-cultural, in any aerobiological investigation.     

Aerobiological investigations applied to the conservation of cultural heritage

Aerobiological investigations of culturalheritage may be helpful in the choice of possibleintervention for the preventionof biological degradation of works of art.This paper reports on three aerobiologicalstudies that aim to control thediffusion of fungi responsible for damage tomural paintings.In the crypt of the Duomo at Anagni (nearRome), a source of airborne fungi responsiblefor degradation of the mural paintings wasidentified. The influence of architecturalstructure on the impact and propagation of thefungal spores was examined. The reduction ofaerodiffused microflora was controlled afterdisinfection.In the hypogean Basilica of San Clemente, inthe centre of Rome, an aerobiological analysisallowed evaluation of the effects of the closureof some air locks.In the Chapel of the Crucifixion of Sacromonte,at Varallo Sesia (near Vercelli), the periodsof highest diffusion of a microfungusdeteriorating mural paintings (Cladosporiumsphaerospermum Penz.) were identified bytaking into account the seasonal variations.Two entrance doors to the chapel weremainly responsible for thepresence of the aerodiffused microflora.These studies show that the passive samplingmethod of sedimentation may represent a usefulsupport in the study of airborne fungi whichdeteriorate mural paintings. In environmentsscarcely disturbed from a microclimatic pointof view, aerobiological sampling bygravitational deposition can givehelpful information at a qualitative andsemi-quantitative level.     

Pollen and Mould Allergy in Southern Sardinia (Italy): Comparison of Skin-Test Frequencies and Air Sampling Data

A study was carried out to investigate the influence of atmospheric pollen and fungi in determining allergic diseases by comparing the frequency of skin reactions to air sampling data over a 6-year period.

48% of our population reacted to at least one of the pollen and fungal extracts used. Among pollen, Gramineae gave the most frequent positive reactions, followed by Parietaria, Olea and Compositae. The most common positive skin tests in fungus sensitive patients were by extracts of Alternaria, Cladosporium, Aspergillus and Candida

As for the aerobiological survey, the general trend of pollen and molds was similar during the sampling period. The annual pollen catch did not show remarkable differences during the years sampled, whereas the total fungal spore count was highest in 1988 and 1990.

A comparison between aerobiological and clinical data revealed a good degree of concordance between total pollen counts and positive skin test frequencies for Urticaceae, Gramineae and Oleaceae but not for Compositae (high positive skin reactions and very low counts) and Cupressaceae (high counts and few skin reactions).

A less marked correlation has been found between fungal spore counts and positive skin-test frequencies as compared to pollen. Spores such as Cladosporium, which are present in large number in the air, appear to be less sensitizing, while certain spore types (e.g. Alternaria), seem to be able to sensitize patients in spite of their low atmospheric concentrations.     

An aerobiological study in the rural areas of Aragon (Spain) with a high population of pigs

The development of intensive livestock farming in the swine industry has created problems associated not only with disease control but also with the disposal of excreta and other waste products. Both waste products and animals can contaminate the air of confinement swine buildings and their surroundings. The objective of this work was to determine the concentration and species composition of the bacterial and fungal microflora in the air of different villages with a high population of pigs in their surroundings. Outdoor air sampling was conducted in 24 rural urban nucleus of Aragon (Spain). In each site, three sampling points were done: one in the center of the town, another in the outskirts of the same town, and the last one in the surrounding farms. Microorganisms were isolated with a sampler Surface Air System (S.A.S.). In the quantitative analysis, the potential risk of exposure to airborne microorganisms decreased outside and near of the farms and, of course, in other sampling points, because the airborne levels of total bacteria and fungi found in the three points are similar, slightly higher in the surrounding farms and lower inside of the buildings. The genera Staphylococcus and Bacillus among isolated Grampositive bacteria were the most common, while among the Gram-negative genera often were Alcaligenes and Acinetobacter in most cases observed. In fungi, the most isolated genera were Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Penicillium and Alternaria, which are very important aeroallergens. In this work, were found no differences between the three sampling, which are indicative of few microbial contamination of the air from swine confinement buildings at short distances.     

Occurrence of fungi in air and on plants in vegetation of different climatic regions in Croatia

Research was carried out onthe presence and variation in occurrence offungal genera in air and on plant samplescollected from three different climatic regionsin Croatia in relation to temperature andrelative humidity throughout one year (1998).The sampling method employed in this study wasexposure of 150 Sabouraud agar plates withantibiotics to the air for 10 min. and byplacing 10 pieces of each plant sample (N = 150)on same agar. The spores belonging to 15 fungalgenera and sterile mycelim were identified.Cladosporium (65.3–74%),Penicillium (4.43–13.9%), Alternaria(2–4.7%), and sterile mycelium (7.4–15%) werethe most prevalent fungi in the air of all threeclimatic regions, while Fusarium(20.3–36.2%) was the most prevalent fungalgenera on plant samples especially in the modestcontinental climate. Significant differenceswere obtained for comparative fungalcontamination of air and plant samples, and bycomparing monthly occurrence in all three partsincluded. The climate factors and presence ofvegetation that produce essential oils withfungicide activity may be the reason for reducedfungal contamination of outdoor environments inthe Mediterranean climate.     

Preliminary surveys of outdoor and indoor aeromycobiota in Uganda

This investigation was conducted during the period of March through June 1998 to trap, enumerate and identify the different airborne fungi in a variety of microhabitats of outdoor and indoor environments in different localities of Uganda. The settle plate method was used and Czapek-Dox agar was the isolation medium. A total of 47 genera and 61 species in addition to some other unidentified airborne fungi were trapped from all exposures at outdoor (39 genera and 52 species) and indoor (35 and 49) environments. The total fungal catches of outdoor airspora obtained from all exposures (and even in most individual exposures) were more than twice (5222 colonies) of that of the indoor ones (4361) when the exposure periods are taken into consideration. It is worth mentioning that the most highly polluted sites were either parks, forests or river banks for outdoor exposures, or teaching laboratory, library, laterines or bathrooms for indoor exposures. The most prevalent fungi from both outdoor and indoor microhabitats being species of Mycosphaerella, Yeasts, Penicillium, Fusarium, Aspergillus,Cochliobolus and Alternaria. However, several others were trapped frequently from either outdoor or indoor environments. On the other hand, several others were trapped only, but not frequently (in low or rare instances) from either outdoor or indoor microhabitats. The implications of these airborne spores are also discussed. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Occurrence of Didymella ascospores in western and southern Poland in 2004–2006

The concentration of airborne Didymella spores has been investigated at two monitoring sites situated along the west–south transect in Poland (Szczecin, Kraków), i.e. from a height of 100 to 219 m, respectively, above sea level. The aerobiological monitoring of fungal spores was performed by means of two Lanzoni volumetric spore traps. The high Didymella spore numbers were observed at both cities in June, July and August. Statistically significant correlations have been found mainly between the Didymella spore concentrations in the air and the minimum air temperature and relative air humidity. The spore count of Didymella is determined by the diversity of local flora and weather conditions, especially by the relative air humidity. The identification of factors that influence and shape spore concentrations may significantly improve the current methods of allergy prevention.     

Aerobiological study in the Mexico City subway system

Monitoring campaigns in two different seasons were carried out at two underground stations (Tacubaya and Azcapotzalco) of the subway of Mexico City, in order to assess airborne bacterial and fungi concentrations, as well as their relationship with several factors, such as depth of the station, sampling site, temperature, and relative humidity. Sixteen sampling sites were selected according to the depth of the lines and the transit of passengers in the corridors, concourses, and platforms. In addition, samples were also collected in the carriages when they were in movement. Outdoor samples were taken at the two stations for comparison. Two-stage multi-orifice cascade impactors were used to collect aerobiological particles, and with the aid of macroscopic and microscopic characterization were found 57 fungi and 61 bacteria colonies. Outdoor bacteria concentrations ranged from 1 to 68 CFU m^?3, while fungi concentrations varied from 6 to 80 CFU m^?3. The indoor concentration levels of bacteria and fungi ranged from 1 to 484 CFU m^?3 and from 51 to 715 CFU m^?3, respectively. Fungi and bacteria indoor concentrations in the subway were higher than outdoor, up to 8 times. Most of bacteria were identified as Gram-positive nonsporulating short bacillus, while the most abundant fungi genera identified were Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Alternaria in that order of frequency. Statistical analysis showed significant differences between the stations and the lines of different depths, showing a greater microorganisms’ concentration with a greater depth. Although bacteria and fungi concentrations were higher in the spring than in winter, this difference was not significant. Even if indoor microbiological pollution in underground stations was higher than outdoor, the concentrations found in this study were lower than indoor air international standards.     

Airborne fungi in an Italian rice mill

Summary Studies employing volumetric spore trap (VSP) and gravity settling culture plates (GSC) were conducted in order to analyse the air spora of a rice mill at Pavia, Italy, from October-December 1988. Results revealed a variety of fungal spores belonging to different genera and including recognized rice pathogenic fungi. The most frequent genera by GSC method includedAcremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Aureobasidium, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Mucor, Nigrospora, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, and some unidentified fungi. Environmental assessment of fungal spores by VSP revealed that the most prevalent fungi were:Alternaria, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Helminthosporium, Nigrospora, Pyricularia, Tilletia and hyaline, dark and coloured types of ascospores and basidiospores. Airborne fungal spore concentrations were particularly high (5,000–6,000 spores/m³) in the rooms of the rice mill where the initial stages of rough rice transformation take place, and dropped to 2,500 spores/m³ in the last room, where workers are. During a temporary interruption of the working processes, air spora concentration dropped below 1,000 spores/m³.Cladosporium, Epicoccum andNigrospora spores were predominant in all subdivisions of the indoor environments of the rice mill.     

Airborne-pollen map for Olea europaea L. in eastern Andalusia (Spain) using GIS: Estimation models

Estimations based upon geostatistics and mapping have enabled the construction of a spatial model to predict the presence of biological particles in a particular region. This methodological proposal has been tested in a case study, at a regional scale, of airborne Olea pollen, using the data acquired from␣various sampling stations that are designed for the aerobiological monitoring of pollen levels. These sampling stations have been set up in cities throughout the region of Andalusia (southern Spain) at sites with very different characteristics in terms of biogeography, bioclimate, topography and vegetation. Pollen counts were made daily at all sites during 2003 using a volumetric spore-trap. Data were comparatively analysed in classical diagrams and by means of spatial-temporal maps. Space-time models were constructed using three coordinates, x, y (the UTM coordinates of each sampling station) and z, (the aerobiological data compiled for a specific period). The aerobiological data were interpolated by applying the traditional geostatistical method of Kriging. The introduction of the variable “space” into the model allowed us to predict pollen levels in different areas throughout the region. The interpolation method was used to make weekly estimations of Olea pollen values in areas where there was no aerobiological sampling station. In addition, the maps generated present a two-dimensional vision of the study area, showing that bioclimatic diversity of this region promotes a step-wise flowering of Olea.     

Prevalence and distribution of airborne and waterborne fungi and actinomycetes in the Nile river

The objective of this research was to investigate the prevalence and distribution of airborne and waterborne fungi and actinomycetes along the main stream of the Nile river during April to July, 2005. Air and water samples were collected at eight sites within a ~50 km stretch of the river. The distribution and prevalence of air and water microorganisms varied with location. The highest counts of airborne fungi (516 CFU/p/h) and actinomycetes (222 CFU/p/h) were detected at suburban sites near cultivated areas. However, the highest counts of waterborne fungi (56.4 CFU/ml) and actinomycetes (15.4 CFU/ml) were detected at Al-Galaa (city centre) and Kafr-El-elwe (south Cairo), respectively. A total of 1,816 fungal colonies (943 isolates from air and 873 from water samples) belonging to 27 genera were identified. Aspergillus, Alternaria, Cladosporium, and yeasts were the predominant fungal types in both air and water environments. Dreschlera, Emericella, Nigrospora, Spicaria, Stachybotrys, and Verticillium were only detected in the air, and Epicoccum, Philaphora, Phoma and Ulocladium were only detected in the water. Mycotoxin-producing fungi represented by Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Trichoderma were found in the air and water environments. Significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) were found between fungal populations in air and water at different sampling sites. No significant differences (P ≥ 0.05) were found between waterborne actinomycetes. Sampling location, human activity, and pollution load are the main factors affecting the variability and biodiversity of microorganisms in different microenvironments.     

Mould biodiversity in homes I. Air and surface analysis of 130 dwellings

Summary Air and surface sampling to quantify and identify fungi were conducted over a 10-year period in 130 Belgian homes, including flats and houses. Homes were selected based on the medical files of allergic, mostly asthmatic patients to assess possible mould responsibility in the aetiology of the disease. Air sampling was done with Reuter centrifugal air sampler using different sampling times and incubation temperatures to detect mesophilic and thermotolerant or thermophilic fungi. More than 50 genera were detected, withCladosporium, Penicillium andAspergillus being the most common. The main species detected wereAspergillus versicolor, several species ofPenicillium, Cladosporium sphaerospermum andCladosporium herbarum. Surface sampling was conducted concomitant with air sampling. Surfaces with and without visible mould growth were tested equally by Rodac contact plates or swabs. AlthoughCladosporium herbarum was shown to be a common species in indoor environments by air sampling, it was not detected by surface sampling from visible mould growth. This finding suggests that its presence in dwellings is from an outdoor origin and not indicative of indoor proliferation.Aspergillus versicolor, Cladosporium sphaerospermun, andPenicillium chrysogenum were the most common species isolated from surfaces showing visible mould growth.     

Diversity of endophytic mycobiota in Fortunearia sinensis

Fortunearia sinensis is an endemic species of arbor to China. The diversity of endophytic fungi of F. sinensis was preliminarily studied in order to understand the composition and change of mycobiota. 1436 strains of endophytic fungi were isolated from healthy laminae, petioles and twigs of F. sinensis located in Baohua mountain of Jiangsu province separately in spring and autumn. The isolation rate amounted to 53%. The isolates were identified and classified into 33 genera based on the morphological characters and ITS sequences. Alternaria, Fusarium and Pestalotiopsis were three dominant genera with the relative abundance of 21.52%, 19.64% and 13.16%, respectively. 498 isolates belonging to 27 genera of endophytic fungi were obtained from tested petiole samples of F. sinensis. The Shannon–Wiener index and Margalef index of endophytic fungi in the petiole were respectively 2.77 and 2.90 which were larger than those in the lamina and twig. 1076 isolates belonging to 27 genera of endophytic fungi were obtained in tissue samples of F. sinensis collected in autumn. Endophytic fungi of F. sinensis in autumn with the Shannon–Wiener index of 2.69 and Margalef index of 2.58 were more diverse than in spring.     

The air spora of an orchid greenhouse

The orchid collection of the ELTE Botanical Garden, Budapest, Hungary was monitored for airborne fungi using viable and non-viable air-sampling methods (Hirst-type and a 3-stage Andersen sampler) with three different culture media. A new culture method was also applied to identify fungal spores from Hirst-type samples. The aim of this study was to determine the diversity, human- and phytopathological potential of the air spora. To find out sources of airborne fungi, samples were collected from the air in an adjacent greenhouse and outdoors, and from necrotic plants. A total of 58 genera were found in the air samples. Cladosporium and Penicillium spp. were common members of the airborne biota. A high proportion (27.5%) of identified genera may be presented as a member of microbial consortium associated with the orchids. Airborne fungi potentially pathogenic to humans were also detected. One species, Zygosporium masonii, was new to Hungary. Statistical analysis indicated that conditions of sampling had significant effects. The principal component analysis elucidated the three principal components representing 75.34% of the total variance; the clusters of variables were related to the three types of culture media. Relative abundance of small-sized spores was high, presumably because of the fungal species composition and accelerated sedimentation of large spores in still air. Apparently, in the studied orchid greenhouse, a specific mycobiota developed due to the climate and hosts (Orchideaceae) grown there.     

Epidemiology of allergic disease: the fungi

Summary In indoor aerial environments and in particular that of homes, the number and type of fungal spores present in the air depend, more than on air exchange with the outside atmosphere, on the presence of sources or dispersion within the building itself. The concentration of spores is half that normally recorded outside the building, withAspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Alternaria, Mucor, Rhizopus andOidiodendron as the dominating genera. Aerosporological investigations carried out in homes should ideally be done at night, with the exposition of cultural dishes. The repetitive isolation of the same fungus may be particularly important in the etiology of allergic manifestation in man. Particular environments, if insufficiently aerated, with high levels of relative humidity and insufficient illumination, may become ecological niches particularly well suited to fungi, both during its latent form or during a phase of rapid development. Together with rapidly developing fungi, for instanceMucor andRhizopus, slow developing moulds such asPenicillium, Aspergillus andTrichoderma may also be found, characterized however by a production of a great number of easily dispersed conidia. Etiological research into the allergic manifestations of patients continuously inhaling spores responsible for particular allergies appears to be insufficiently developed.