Intimate coupling of photocatalysis and biodegradation in a photocatalytic circulating-bed biofilm reactor

Coupling advanced oxidative pretreatment with subsequent biodegradation demonstrates potential for treating wastewaters containing biorecalcitrant and inhibitory organic constituents. However, advanced oxidation is indiscriminate, producing a range of products that can be too oxidized, unavailable for biodegradation, or toxic themselves. This problem could be overcome if advanced oxidation and biodegradation occurred together, an orientation called intimate coupling; then, biodegradable organics are removed as they are formed, focusing the chemical oxidant on the non-biodegradable fraction. Intimate coupling has seemed impossible because the conditions of advanced oxidation, for example, hydroxyl radicals and sometimes UV-light, are severely toxic to microorganisms. Here, we demonstrate that a novel photocatalytic circulating-bed biofilm reactor (PCBBR), which utilizes macro-porous carriers to protect biofilm from toxic reactants and UV light, achieves intimate coupling. We demonstrate the viability of the PCBBR system first with UV only and acetate, where the carriers grew biofilm and sustained acetate biodegradation despite continuous UV irradiation. Images obtained by scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy show bacteria living behind the exposed surface of the cubes. Second, we used slurry-form Degussa P25 TiO2 to initiate photocatalysis of inhibitory 2,4,5-trichlorophenol (TCP) and acetate. With no bacterial carriers, photocatalysis and physical processes removed TCP and COD to 32% and 26% of their influent levels, but addition of biofilm carriers decreased residuals to 2% and 4%, respectively. Biodegradation alone could not remove TCP. Photomicrographs clearly show that biomass originally on the exterior of the carriers was oxidized (charred), but biofilm a short distance within the carriers was protected. Finally, we coated TiO2 directly onto the carrier surface, producing a hybrid photocatalytic-biological carrier. These carriers likewise demonstrated the concept of photocatalytic degradation of TCP coupled with biodegradation of acetate, but continued TCP degradation required augmentation with slurry-form TiO2.     

Biofilm coupled with UV irradiation for phenol degradation and change of its community structure

The extensive use of phenol compounds and the inability to remove these compounds during wastewater treatment have resulted in the widespread occurrence of phenols in the natural environment. Phenols have been linked to serious risks to human and environmental health. Hence, the need to develop technologies that can effectively remove phenols from wastewater and source waters is a pressing challenge. In this study, light ceramic particles were immersed in activated sludge acclimated to degrade phenol, and microorganisms were allowed to attach to the particles surface to form biofilm. Then the ceramic particles with biofilm were moved into the photolytic circulating-bed biofilm reactor made of quartz glass, which was used for the degradation of phenol by three protocols: photolysis with UV light alone (P), biodegradation alone (B), and the two mechanisms operating simultaneously (photobiodegradation, P&B). The experimental results indicated that phenol removal rate was quickest by B experiment. However, P&B experiment gave more complete mineralization of phenol than that by other protocols. During P&B experiment, the microorganisms grown on porous ceramic carrier still kept the bioactivity degrading phenol, even under UV light irradiation. However, the dominant members of the bacterial community changed dramatically after the intimately coupled photobiodegradation, according to molecular biological analysis to the biofilm. Whereas Beijerinckia sp. was the dominant strain in the inoculum, it was replaced by Thauera sp. MZ1T that played a main role on degrading phenol during P&B experiment.     

2,4-DNT removal in intimately coupled photobiocatalysis: the roles of adsorption, photolysis, photocatalysis, and biotransformation

The removal of 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT) by simultaneous UV-photo(cata)lysis and biodegradation was explored using intimately coupled photolysis/photocatalysis and biodegradation (ICPB) with two novel porous carriers. First, a porous ceramic carrier was used to attach the photocatalyst (TiO?) on its exterior and accumulate biomass in its interior. UV irradiation alone decomposed 71% of the 2,4-DNT in 60 h, and TiO? catalyst improved the photolysis to 77%. Second, a macroporous sponge carrier was used to strongly adsorb 2,4-DNT and protect microorganisms from 2,4-DNT inhibition and UV irradiation. The main photolytic reactions were reduction of the nitryl to amino and hydrolysis of the amino to release NH??. The main biodegradation reactions were oxidative release of NO?? and accelerated reductive release of NH??. ICPB more thoroughly released inorganic N, with nearly equal amounts being oxidized to nitrate and reduced to ammonium. The genera Burkholderia and Bacillus were found inside the sponge carriers, and they are associated with biodegradation of DNT and its photolysis intermediates. Therefore, using an adsorbent and macroporous biofilm carrier enabled the effective removal of 2,4-DNT by ICPB.     

2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) photobiodegradation and its effect on community structure

The mechanisms occurring in a photolytic circulating-bed biofilm reactor (PCBBR) treating 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) were investigated using batch experiments following three protocols: photodegradation alone (P), biodegradation alone (B), and intimately coupled photodegradation and biodegradation (P&B). Initially, the ceramic particles used as biofilm carriers rapidly adsorbed TCP, particularly in the B experiments. During the first 10 min, the TCP removal rate for P&B was equal to the sum of the rates for P and B, and P&B continued to have the greatest TCP removal, with the TCP concentration approaching zero only in the P&B experiments. When phenol, an easily biodegradable compound, was added along with TCP in order to promote TCP mineralization by means of secondary utilization, P&B was superior to P and B in terms of mineralization of TCP, giving 95% removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD). The microbial communities, examined by clone libraries, changed dramatically during the P&B experiments. Whereas Burkholderia xenovorans, a known degrader of chlorinated aromatics, was the dominant strain in the TCP-acclimated inoculum, it was replaced in the P&B biofilm by strains noted for biofilm formation and biodegrading non-chlorinated aromatics.     

Integrated photocatalytic-biological reactor for accelerated phenol mineralization

An integrated photocatalytic-biological reactor (IPBR) was developed for accelerated phenol degradation and mineralization. In the IPBR, photodegradation and biodegradation occurred simultaneously, but in two separated zones: a piece of mat-glass plate coated with TiO₂ film and illuminated by UV light was connected by internal circulation to a honeycomb ceramic that was the biofilm carrier for biodegradation. This arrangement was designed to give intimate coupling of photocatalysis and biodegradation. Phenol degradation was investigated by following three protocols: photocatlysis with TiO₂ film under ultraviolet light, but no biofilm (photodegradation); biofilm biodegradation with no UV light (biodegradation); and simultaneous photodegradation and biodegradation (intimately coupled photobiodegradation). Photodegradation alone could partly degrade phenol, but was not able to achieve significant mineralization, even with an HRT of 10 h. Biodegradation alone could completely degrade phenol, but it did not mineralize the COD by more than 74%. Photobiodegradation allowed continuous rapid degradation of phenol, but it also led to more complete mineralization of phenol (up to 92%) than the other protocols. The results demonstrate that intimate coupling was achieved by protecting the biofilm from UV and free-radical inhibition. With phenol as the target compound, the main advantage of intimate coupling in the IPBR was increased mineralization, presumably because photocatalysis made soluble microbial products more rapidly biodegradable.     

Degradation of reactive dyes in a photocatalytic circulating-bed biofilm reactor

Decolorization and mineralization of reactive dyes by intimately coupled TiO₂‐photocatalysis and biodegradation (ICPB) on a novel TiO₂‐coated biofilm carrier were investigated in a photocatalytic circulating‐bed biofilm reactor (PCBBR). Two typical reactive dyes—Reactive Black 5 (RB5) and Reactive Yellow 86 (RY86)—showed similar first‐order kinetics when being photocatalytically decolorized at low pH (～4–5) in batch experiments. Photocatalytic decolorization was inhibited at neutral pH in the presence of phosphate or carbonate buffer, presumably due to electrostatic repulsion from negatively charged surface sites on TiO₂, radical scavenging by phosphate or carbonate, or both. Therefore, continuous PCBBR experiments were carried out at a low pH (～4.5) to maintain high photocatalytic efficiency. In the PCBBR, photocatalysis alone with TiO₂‐coated carriers could remove target compound RB5 and COD by 97% and 47%, respectively. Addition of biofilm inside macroporous carriers maintained a similar RB5 removal efficiency, but COD removal increased to 65%, which is evidence of ICPB despite the low pH. ICPB was further proven by finding microorganisms inside carriers at the end of the PCBBR experiments. A proposed ICPB pathway for RB5 suggests that a major intermediate, a naphthol derivative, was responsible for most of the residual COD, while most of the nitrogen in the azo‐bonds (? N?N? ) was oxidized to N₂. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2012; 109:884–893. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Internal loop photobiodegradation reactor (ILPBR) for accelerated degradation of sulfamethoxazole (SMX)

The internal loop photobiodegradation reactor (ILPBR) was evaluated for the degradation of the pharmaceutical sulfamethoxazole (SMX) using batch experiments following three protocols: photolysis alone (P), biodegradation alone (B), and intimately coupled photolysis and biodegradation (P&B). SMX was removed more rapidly by P&B than by either P or B alone, and the corresponding dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removals by P&B also were higher. The faster SMX removal probably was due to a synergy between photolysis and the rapid biodegradation of SMX by the biofilm. The greater DOC removal was brought about by the presence of biofilm bacteria able to biodegrade photolysis products. Ammonium N released during photolysis of SMX gave more evidence for the formation of intermediates and was enough in P&B experiments to support bioactivity when no other N was supplied. Clone libraries performed on the biofilms before and after the P&B experiments showed profound changes in the microbial community. Whereas Rhodopirellula baltica and Methylibium petroleiphilum PM1 dominated the biofilm after the B experiments, they were replaced by Micrococcus luteus, Delftia acidovorans, and Oligotropha carboxidovorans after the P&B experiments. The changes in microbial community structure mirrored the change in function in the P&B experiments: SMX biodegradation (presumably the roles of R. baltica and M. petroleiphilum) was out-competed by SMX photolysis, but biodegradation of photolysis products (most likely by M. luteus and D. acidovorans) became important. The higher removal rates of SMX and DOC, as well as the changes in microbial community structure, confirm the value of intimately coupling photolysis with biodegradation in the ILPBR.     

Integrated photocatalytic-biological reactor for accelerated 2,4,6-trichlorophenol degradation and mineralization

An integrated photocatalytic-biological reactor (IPBR) was used for accelerated degradation and mineralization of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) through simultaneous, intimate coupling of photocatalysis and biodegradation in one reactor. Intimate coupling was realized by circulating the IPBR’s liquid contents between a TiO₂ film on mat glass illuminated by UV light and honeycomb ceramics as biofilm carriers. Three protocols—photocatalysis alone (P), biodegradation alone (B), and integrated photocatalysis and biodegradation (photobiodegradation, P&B)—were used for degradation of different initial TCP concentrations. Intimately coupled P&B also was compared with sequential P and B. TCP removal by intimately coupled P&B was faster than that by P and B alone or sequentially coupled P and B. Because photocatalysis relieved TCP inhibition to biodegradation by decreasing its concentration, TCP biodegradation could become more important over the full batch P&B experiments. When phenol, an easy biodegradable compounds, was added to TCP in order to promote TCP mineralization by means of secondary utilization, P&B was superior to P and B in terms of mineralization of TCP, giving 95% removal of chemical oxygen demand. Cl⁻ was only partially released during P experiments (24%), and this corresponded to its poor mineralization in P experiments (32%). Thus, intimately coupled P&B in the IPBR made it possible obtain the best features of each: rapid photocatalytic transformation in parallel with mineralization of photocatalytic products.     

UV photolysis for accelerated quinoline biodegradation and mineralization

Sequentially and intimately coupled photolysis with biodegradation were evaluated for their ability to accelerate quinoline-removal and quinoline-mineralization kinetics. UV photolysis sequentially coupled to biodegradation significantly improved biomass-growth kinetics, which could be represented well by the Aiba self-inhibition model: UV photolysis increased the maximum specific growth rate (μ _max) by 15 %, and the inhibition constant (K _SI) doubled. An internal loop photo-biodegradation reactor (ILPBR) was used to realize intimately coupled photolysis with biodegradation. The ILPBR was operated with batch experiments following three protocols: photolysis alone (P), biodegradation alone (B), and intimately coupled photolysis and biodegradation (P&B). For P&B, the maximum quinoline removal rate (r _max) increased by 9 %, K _SI increased by 17 %, and the half-maximum-rate concentration (K _S) decreased by 55 %, compared to B; the composite result was a doubling of the quinoline-biodegradation rate for most of the concentration range tested. The degree of mineralization was increased by both forms of photolysis coupled to biodegradation, and the impact was greater for intimate coupling (18 % increase) than sequential coupling (5 %). The benefits of UV photolysis were greater with intimate coupling than with sequential coupling due to parallel transformation by biodegradation and photolysis.     

An airlift biofilm reactor for the biodegradation of phenol by Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1

Phenol bioconversion by Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1 using either free or immobilized cells was investigated with the aim of searching for optimal operating conditions of a continuous bioconversion process. The study was developed by analyzing: (a) free-cell growth and products of phenol bioconversion by batch cultures of P. stutzeri; (b) growth of P. stutzeri cells immobilized on carrier particles; (c) bioconversion of phenol-bearing liquid streams and the establishment and growth of an active bacterial biofilm during continuous operation of an internal-loop airlift bioreactor. We have confirmed that free Pseudomonas cultures are able to transform phenol through the classical meta pathway for the degradation of aromatic molecules. Data indicate that bacterial growth is substrate-inhibited, with a limiting phenol concentration of about 600 mg/L. Immobilization tests revealed that a stable bacterial biofilm can be formed on various types of solid carriers (silica sand, tuff, and activated carbon), but not on alumina. Entrapment in alginate beads also proved to be effective for P. stutzeri immobilization. Continuous bioconversion of phenol-bearing liquid streams was successfully obtained in a biofilm reactor operated in the internal-circulation airlift mode. Phenol conversion exceeded 95%. Biofilm formation and growth during continuous operation of the airlift bioreactor were quantitatively and qualitatively assessed.     

Biodegradation of phenol by bacterial strains from petroleum-refining wastewater purification plant

The ability of four strains of bacteria derived from a biological petroleum-refining wastewater purification plant to carry out the biodegradation of phenol was studied. Two of the strains belonging to the genus Pseudomonas were found to be characterised by high effectiveness of the removal of phenol which was used as sole carbon and energy source (the strains were designated P1 and P2). In turn the effect of inoculum size, initial concentration of substrate (500 and 1,000 mg phenol/L) and temperature (10, 20 and 30 degrees C) on the rate of phenol degradation by strains P1, P2 and mixture of both was investigated. It was found that strain P1 which was identified as Pseudomonas fluorescens degraded phenol better than strain P2--Pseudomonas cepacia. The rate of phenol biodegradation was significantly affected by size of inoculum and temperature of incubation. Phenol was removed the fastest with the highest inoculum used. The optimal temperature was about 20 degrees C. At 10 and 30 degrees C the process of biodegradation was visibly inhibited. The rate of phenol utilisation was also found to decrease with increased concentration of substrate.     

Intensification of phenol biodegradation by humic substances

Phenol biodegradation was carried out in a batch system by the bacterial strain Cupriavidus metallidurans in the presence of potassium humate that was prepared by alkaline extraction from oxyhumolite. The experiments were focused on the assessment of the humate effect on biodegradation activity of the tested bacterial strain. The achieved results demonstrated that the humate has a positive influence on the biodegradation of phenol and reduces the incubation time necessary for phenol removal. Higher biodegradation rate and more intensive growth were observed during the cultivation in presence of humate in comparison to the cultivation without its addition. Adsorption of the humate on bacterial biomass was observed as well. Subsequently, a phenol biodegradation testing in a continuous-flow system using a biofilm reactor was also carried out. Although the reactor was inoculated by C. metallidurans only, the microbial composition under an aerobic non-aseptic condition during this long-term cultivation changed. The phenol removal efficiency obtained in the biofilm reactor was higher than 92% when phenol concentration in a treated medium was 1200 mg l⁻¹.     

Semicontinuous and continuous degradation of phenol by Pseudomonas putida P8 adsorbed on activated carbon

Summary The semicontinuous and continuous degradation of phenol by Pseudomonas putida P8 which was immobilized on activated carbon was investigated. The amount of bacteria immobilized on the activated carbon surface dependend on the cell concentration in the suspension and on the type of activated carbon. In a continuous process running for four weeks the biomass, which accumulated in the activated carbon fixed bed, was removed periodically. The average phenol degradation rate in this process was 360 mg/1 h. The degradation activity of the bacteria for phenol, measured by the activity of the catechol-2,3-dioxygenase, was stimulated by the activated carbon. During the fermentation processes the carbon particles were covered with a biofilm. The bacteria grew, especially in the caverns and the entrances of the macropores, whereby the phenol adsorption by the activated carbon was decreased.     

UV photolysis for enhanced phenol biodegradation in the presence of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP)

A bacterial strain isolated from activated sludge and identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens could biodegrade phenol, but 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) inhibited phenol biodegradation and biomass growth. UV photolysis converted TCP into dichlorocatechol, monochlorophenol, and dichlorophenol, and this relieved inhibition by TCP. Phenol-removal and biomass-growth rates were significantly accelerated after UV photolysis: the monod maximum specific growth rate (μ _max) increased by 9 % after TCP photolysis, and the half-maximum-rate concentration (K _S) decreased by 36 %. Thus, the major benefit of UV photolysis in this case was to transform TCP into a set of much-less-inhibitory products.     

Biodegradation of phenol in synthetic and industrial wastewater by Rhodococcus erythropolis UPV-1 immobilized in an air-stirred reactor with clarifier

Phenol biodegradation by suspended and immobilized cells of Rhodococcus erythropolis UPV-1 was studied in discontinuous and continuous mode under optimum culture conditions. Phenol-acclimated cells were adsorbed on diatomaceous earth, where they grew actively forming a biofilm of short filaments. Immobilization protected cells against phenol and resulted in a remarkable enhancement of their respiratory activity and a shorter lag phase preceding active phenol degradation. Under optimum operation conditions in a laboratory-scale air-stirred reactor, the immobilized cells were able to completely degrade phenol in synthetic wastewater at a volumetric productivity of 11.5 kg phenol m(-3) day(-1). Phenol biodegradation was also tested in two different industrial wastewaters (WW1 and WW2) obtained from local resin manufacturing companies, which contained both phenols and formaldehyde. In this case, after wastewater conditioning (i.e., dilution, pH, nitrogen and phosphorous sources and micronutrient amendments) the immobilized cells were able to completely remove the formaldehyde present in both waters. Moreover, they biodegraded phenols completely at a rate of 0.5 kg phenol m(-3) day(-1) in the case of WW1 and partially (but at concentrations lower than 50 mg l(-1)) at 0.1 and 1.0 kg phenol m(-3) day(-1) in the cases of WW2 and WW1, respectively.     

A novel membrane bioreactor for detoxifying industrial wastewater: I. Biodegradation of phenol in a synthetically concocted wastewater

A novel process has been used to biodegrade phenol present in an acidic (1 M HCI) and salty (5% w/w NaCl) synthetically bioreactor, in which the phenol present in the wastewater is separated from the inorganic components by means of a silicone rubber membrane. Transfer of the phenol from the wastewater and into a biological growth medium allows biodegradation to proceed under controlled conditions which are unaffected by the hostile inorganic composition of the wastewater. At a wastewater flow rate of 18 mL h(-1) (contact time 6 h), 98.5% of the phenol present in the wastewater at an inlet concentration of 1000 mg ( (-1) ) was degraded; at a contact time of 1.9 h, 65% of the phenol was degraded. Phenol degradation was accompanied by growth of a biofilm on the membrane tubes and by conversion of approximately 80% of the carbon entering the system to CO(2) carbon. Analysis of the transport of phenol across the membrane revealed that the major resistance to mass transfer arose in the diffusion of phenol across the silicone rubber membrane. A mathematical model was used to describe the transfer of phenol across the membrane and the subsequent diffusion and reaction of phenol in the biofilm attached to the membrane tube. This analysis showed that (a) the attached biofilm significantly lowers the mass transfer driving force for phenol across the membrane, and (b) oxygen concentration limits the phenol degradation rate in the biofilm. These conclusions from the model are consistent with the experimental results. (c) 1993 Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Biodegradation of Phenol: Mechanisms and Applications

Phenol, or hydroxybenzene, is both a synthetically and naturally produced aromatic compound. Microorganisms capable of degrading phenol are common and include both aerobes and anaerobes. Many aerobic phenol-degrading microorganisms have been isolated and the pathways for the aerobic degradation of phenol are now firmly established. The first steps include oxygenation of phenol by phenol hydroxylase enzymes to form catechol, followed by ring cleavage adjacent to or in between the two hydroxyl groups of catechol. Phenol hydroxylases ranging from simple flavoprotein monooxygenases to multicomponent hydroxylases, as well as the genes coding for these enzymes, have been described for a number of aerobic phenol-degrading microorganisms. Phenol can also be degraded in the absence of oxygen. Our knowledge of this process is less advanced than that of the aerobic process, and only a few anaerobic phenol-degrading bacteria have been isolated to date. Convincing evidence from both pure culture studies with the denitrifying organism Thauera aromatica K172 and with two Clostridium species, as well as from mixed culture studies, indicates that the first step in anaerobic phenol degradation is carboxylation in the para-position to form 4-hydroxybenzoate. Following para-carboxylation, thioesterification of 4-hydroxybenzoate to co-enzyme A allows subsequent ring reduction, hydration, and fission. Para-carboxylation appears to be involved in the anaerobic degradation of a number of aromatic compounds. Numerous practical applications exist for microbial phenol degradation. These include the exploitation of indigenous anaerobic phenol-degrading bacteria in the in situ bioremediation of creosote-contaminated subsurface environments, and the use of phenol as a co-substrate for indigenous aerobic phenol-degrading bacteria to enhance in situ biodegradation of chlorinated solvents.     

Biodegradation of phenol and <Emphasis Type="Italic">m</Emphasis>-cresol by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida albicans</Emphasis> PDY-07 under anaerobic condition

Strain Candida albicans PDY-07 was used to study the anaerobic biodegradation of phenol and m-cresol as single and dual substrates in batch cultures. The strain had a higher potential to degrade phenol than m-cresol. The cell growth kinetics of batch cultures with various initial m-cresol concentrations was investigated, and the Haldane kinetic model adequately described the dynamic behavior of cell growth on m-cresol. When cells grew on the mixture of phenol and m-cresol, substrate interactions were observed. Phenol inhibited the utilization of m-cresol; on the other hand, m-cresol also inhibited the degradation of phenol. However, the presence of low-concentration phenol enhanced m-cresol biodegradation; 100 mg/l m-cresol could be completely degraded within a shorter period of time than m-cresol alone in the presence of 150–300 mg/l phenol. The maximum m-cresol biodegradation rate was obtained at the existence of 200 mg/l phenol. Phenol was preferably utilized by the strain as a carbon and energy source. In addition, a sum kinetics model was used to describe the cell growth behavior in binary mixture of phenol and m-cresol, and the interaction parameters were determined. The model adequately predicted the growth kinetics and the interaction between the substrates.     

Biodegradation of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) by bacterial mixed cultures in a soil/water system

Decabromodiphenyl ether (DBDE) is a brominated flame retardant that is commonly used in many commercial products. Sorption of DBDE within a soil/water system can result in serious bioaccumulation within the ecological system and be a threat to human health. Little is known about aerobic DBDE biodegradation, and the influence of the UV light radiation on DBDE biodegradation has not been considered. This study, for the first time, isolates DBDE biodegrading aerobic mixed bacterial cultures from DBDE-contaminated soil/water systems in Taiwan. The aerobic biodegradation of DBDE as a sole carbon source in the presence of 365 nm UVA irradiation over 10 months was investigated using a clay/water system. The rate constants for DBDE degradation gave values ranging from 0.0121 to 0.0134 day⁻¹ in the presence of UV irradiation, which were significantly higher than the 0.0092–0.0102 day⁻¹ values obtained in complete darkness. The aerobic metabolites: 2′,3′-dihydroxy-4-bromodiphenyl ether and 2′,3′-dihydroxy-diphenyl ether were identified by GC–MS. Debromination was ascribed to UV irradiation and biodegradation by facultative aerobic bacteria in the micro-anaerobic environment of the clay/water system. The products of debromination included 12 PBDE congeners (tri- to hexa-BDEs) and their concentrations ranged from 34.28 to 83.80 mg l⁻¹. Specific bacteria capable of degrading PBDEs and carrying out nitrification/denitrification were identified. The present findings suggest that systems using a novel combination of photolysis and biodegradation could be developed to carry out DBDE remediation in the future.     

Effects of phenol and natural phenolic compounds on biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

A biofilm is formed as a result of adhesion of microorganisms to various surfaces with the production of extracellular polymers (polysaccharides and proteins). Biofilms cause serious problems in the chemical, medical and pharmaceutical industries. Recent findings indicate that some natural phenolic compounds found in plants have an anti-biofouling effect on biofilm formation by Gram-negative bacteria. The anti-biofouling activities of 14 selected phenol and natural phenolic compounds were tested against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, using a microtiter-plate. A modified microtiter-plate assay was used because it enabled indirect measurement of bacterial cells attached to the surface of the wells. This assay involved fixing the bacterial film with methanol, staining with crystal violet dye and then releasing the bound dye with 33% glacial acetic acid. The optical density (OD) of the solution was measured at 570 nm by using an automated ICN Flow Titertek Multiscan Plus reader. Phenol and natural phenolic compounds except ethyl linoleate and tocopherol showed a significant reduction in biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa.