Interaction of gibberellins and phytochrome in the control of cowpea epicotyl elongation

The physiological response of cowpea ( Vigna sinensis L.) epicotyl explants to far‐red light (FR) and its interaction with gibberellins (GAs) have been investigated. The effect of FR and GA₁ varied with the age of the seedlings from which the explants were made: for FR, it decreased progressively with age (though the sensitivity of the epicotyls to FR did not change significantly until at least day 11), whereas it remained essentially constant for applied GA₁ between days 5 and 9 after sowing. This indicates that the loss of response to FR may be due to a decrease in endogenous GA levels in the epicotyl. For a range of GA₁ and GA₂₀ (0.01–1 µg explant⁻¹), both hormones were more active in FR than in R irradiated epicotyls, suggesting that phytochrome may affect GA sensitivity besides GA metabolism. The location of the epicotyl region most sensitive to FR (between 5 and 20 mm below the apex) was different from that to GAs (the upper 10 mm). Nevertheless, FR extended the region responsive to applied GAs, even in paclobutrazol‐treated epicotyls where elongation was due entirely to exogenous GAs. This means that modulation of epicotyl elongation by phytochrome, that occurs in a zone different from though overlapping with the GA‐sensitive subapical zone, is also mediated by GAs. Growth in the most FR‐sensitive region of the epicotyl stimulated by FR or GA₁ was due to cell elongation, and in the most GA‐sensitive region to both cell division and elongation. The effect of FR and GA₁ was negated by colchicine, indicating that microtubules may be involved in the response to both factors.     

Hypocotyl growth in Sinapis alba L: the roles of light quality and quantity

Abstract. A comparison is made of the relative effectiveness of light quality and light quantity on the elongation growth of Sinapis alba hypocotyls. The results show that hypocotyl extension rate in plants which have not previously been exposed to light is controlled primarily by the prevailing photon fluence rate when the phytochrome photostationary state lies between ∼0.033 and ∼0.81. Below ∼0.033, changes in photostationary state also have a marked effect on extension rate. Elongation growth in light-adapted plants is controlled by both photon fluence rate and the spectral quality of the incident radiation at all photoequilibria. Photosynthesis can modify these responses but is not essential as a prior condition for a green plant to respond to changes in light quality and quantity.     

Photocontrol of hypocotyl elongation in light-grown Cucumis sativus L.

The control by phytochrome of hypocotyl elongation of light-grown Cucumis sativus L. after a white-light period was examined. The farred-absorbing form of phytochrome inhibits hypocotyl elongation. The response to phytochrome photostationary state () is not linear; all values of from 0.004 to 0.13 promote growth maximally, in the range of values of from 0.13 to 0.22 there is a linear growth response, between values of of 0.22 and 0.35 there is again no differential effect, and for values above 0.35 there is a strong (near linear) effect of on elongation. A kinetic examination of events following the white-light period shows that the major recovery from the photoperiod requires 8.5 h of darkness. End-of-day far-red treatment produces a very different response pattern, with a minor growth stimulation within 28 min of treatment followed by a major effect after 80 to 90 min. Three hours after far-red treatment there is a transient decline in growth rate which persists for about 2 h. Over the whole time course there is a great stimulation of growth rate compared with the controls. A similar growth-rate pattern also occurs if the end-of-day is 0.48, although the magnitude of the growth stimulation is less. Two components are affected by end-of-day , namely the time at which growth recovers and the subsequent growth rate. In the long term, the latter accounts for most of the differences in elongation growth. The dark recovery when only the hypocotyl is irradiated requires 4 h, but end-of-day far-red treatment reduces this to about 1.5 h. The persistence of the far-red-absorbing form of phytochrome for many hours in darkness in these light-grown plants is also demonstrated.Abbreviations and symbols D darkness - FR far-red light - Pfr far-red-absorbing form of phytochrome - R red light - WL white light (from fluorescent lamps) - photostationary state of phytochrome - _c calculated      

Phytochrome and internode elongation in Chenopodium polyspermum L. the light fluence rate during the day and the end-of-day effect

The elongation of the fourth internode of fully green Chenopodium polyspermum L. is strongly stimulated by far-red light (FR) given at the end of the day. The end-of-day effect is more important when the plants had been cultivated for several days with a main light period of 140 Wm^-2 than with a main light period of 85 Wm^-2. There exists a quantitative relationship between the FR end-of-day effect mediated by phytochrome and the value of the light fluence during the day.Abbreviations D darkness - FR far-red light - HWL white light at 140 Wm^-2 - LWL white light at 85 Wm^-2 - PAR photosynthetically active radiation - R red light - WL white light     

Photocontrol of hypocotyl elongation in light-grown Cucumis sativus L.

An interaction is demonstrated between the effects of phytochrome and cryptochrome (the specific blue-light photoreceptor) in the inhibition of hypocotyl elongation of light-grown cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) cv. Ridge Greenline seedlings. At certain fluence rates of blue light the total inhibition response is greater than the sum of the separate responses to each photoreceptor. The threshold for response to blue light is reduced at least 30-fold by additional red-light irradiation. The synergistic effect is demonstrated for two different fluence rates of red light. Synergism is mediated by phytochrome in both the cotyledons and the hypocotyl.Abbreviations and symbols BL blue light - FR far-red light - Pfr far-red-absorbing form of phytochrome - R red light - photostationary state of phytochrome - _c calculated      

The 'end-of-day' phytochrome control of internode elongation in mustard: kinetics, interaction with the previous fluence rate, and ecological implications

Abstract The ‘end-of-day’ phytochrome control of internode growth was characterized in Sinapis alba, seedlings previously grown under continuous white light for 13 d. The transition from white light to darkness caused a reduction in internode extension rate with a lag of less than 10 min. Following this, extension rate remained almost constant for at least 48 h. i.e. ‘re-etiolation’ was not noticed. The phytochorme controlling the growth processes was stable in the Pfr form. The growth rate of plants receiving a red light pulse, and the growth promotion caused by a far-red light pulse, increased with increasing fluence rate of the previous white light treatment. In far-red treated plants a first growth rate acceleration peaked at 20–30 min after the end of white light, followed by a transient deceleration which led to a growth rate minimum at 40–60 min, followed by a final growth rate recovery yielding a more-or-less steady elevated rate. Pulses establishing different Pfr/P modified the extent, but not the early kinetics, of the growth response. The relative promotion of growth caused by low Pfr/P was limited by darkness as follows: (a), The growth promotion caused by far-red directed to the internode alone was transient. (b), The promotion caused by a reduction of Pfr/P in the whole shoot persisted in darkness for at least 48 h and also persisted if, after a 3–9 h dark period, the plants were returned to continuous white light. In darkness, however, the magnitude of this growth rate promotion decreased with time, particularly when the previous white light fluence rate was low, or the pulse preceding darkness provided the lowest Pfr/P. (c), When compared over the same period in darkness, growth rate was higher in those seedlings in which Pfr/P was reduced during the continuous white light pretreatment than in those ones in which the Pfr/P was only reduced immediately before darkness. It is proposed that in the natural environment, red/far-red signals could be more effective when provided during daytime than at the end of the photoperiod, as both the background growth rate and the relative promotion caused by low Pfr/P are reduced by darkness.     

Phenotypic plasticity of internode elongation stimulated by deep-seeding and ethylene in wheat seedlings

Deep-seeding and ethylene were found to stimulate extension growth of the first internode of intact wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings in darkness. Seedlings of Hon Mang Mai emerged from much deeper in the soil than the seedlings of the other varieties used and their first internodes elongated to a much greater extent in response to ethylene. Carbon dioxide slowed elongation of the first internode and inhibited ethylene action. Elongation of the first internode due to deep-seeding and ethylene treatment showed high heritabilities, suggesting a genetic basis underlying those traits.     

Far-red light reflected from neighbouring vegetation promotes shoot elongation and accelerates flowering in spring barley plants

Field experiments were conducted in St Paul, MN, USA, to test the hypothesis that early season declines in the red:far-red ratio (R:FR) associated with FR reflection from neighbouring leaves have a role in regulating barley development. Treatment plants were grown adjacent to densely sown border rows of barley. The borders functioned to reflect far-red (FR), which reduced R:FR within the treatment plant light environment without shading treatment plants. Barriers were set in the soil to minimize root interactions between treatment plants and borders. Treatment plants were spaced either 2 or 16 cm apart. The presence of borders significantly increased shoot leaf and internode lengths at both plant spacings. Leaf sheath length data suggest that interactions between 2 cm spaced treatment plants enhanced plant responsiveness to the presence of borders. Border treatments shortened the period of vegetative growth prior to initiation of main shoot floral primordia. Bordered plants formed fewer main shoot leaves, initiated internode elongation at a lower node, and had slightly earlier heading dates than unbordered controls. Leaf appearance rate was not influenced by border treatments. We conclude that barley shoot development is photomorphogenically modulated by R:FR. Early season shifts in R:FR could have a significant influence on shoot development given that barley has the capacity to detect and developmentally respond to declines in R:FR associated with FR reflection from neighbours.     

Photocontrol of stem elongation in plant neighbourhoods: effects of photon fluence rate under natural conditions of radiation

Abstract. We investigated the effects of photon fluence rate on internode elongation in fully de-etiolated plants growing under sunlight. Our goal was to find out whether perception by the stems of fluence rate changes related to canopy density may be involved in the modulation of internode growth in canopies formed by plants of similar stature (e.g. crop stands). Using Datura ferox L. and Sinapis alba L. seedlings growing under natural radiation, we found that internode elongation is promoted by localized shading. This effect was observed with internodes receiving light with a high (>0.9) or a low (0.3) red (R) to far-red (FR) photon ratio. Selective removal of the different wavebands from the light impinging on the internodes showed that part of the response to fluence rate is due to photons in the R + FR range. The blue (B) component, most likely acting through a specific photoreceptor, also inhibited elongation. However, changes in the fluence rate of B light did not have detectable effects on the response of the internodes to R:FR ratio. Fibre-optic studies and measurements with integrating-cylinder sensors in even-aged populations of seedlings showed that both the quality and quantity of radiation received by the stems are profoundly influenced by changes in canopy density. When density is very low (leaf area index = LAI ≥ 1) only the R:FR ratio is reduced, due to FR reflected from nearby leaves. In the LAI range of 1 to 2, though a large proportion of the leaf area is still receiving full sunlight, the photon fluence rate at the stem level drops dramatically. These results suggest that in even-aged populations of LAI > 1 elongation growth is promoted by the low R:FR ratio and the reduced fluence rate. Perception of these two factors at the stem level may elicit morphological adaptations in the canopy before the onset of severe competition among neighbours for the resource of light.     

Resistance of Hibiscus esculentus L. and Vigna sinensis (L.) Endl. to Pseudocercospora and plant peroxidase activity in relation to infection

Five cultivars of Hibiscus esculentus L. and six cultivars of Vigna sinensis (L.) Endl. were tested for their relative resistance to Pseudocercospora spp. Differences in susceptibility to the leaf spot pathogen were observed in both host and non-host interactions. The H. esculentus cv. South Sea and V. sinensis cv. Purple Mart were most susceptible to Pseudocercospora abelmoschi and P. cruenta, respectively. The H. esculentus cv. Pure Luck was most tolerant to P. abelmoschi while the V. sinensis cv. KY Bush was highly resistant to P. cruenta. A distinct host-specific interaction was observed among the different species of Pseudocercospora. Cultivar specific interactions were most pronounced between V. sinensis and P. cruenta. A direct correlation was observed between the variation in peroxidase activity in the soluble fraction of inoculated leaves and resistance to infection in H. esculentus and V. sinensis cultivars. The soluble fraction of inoculated leaves had higher peroxidase activity than either mitochondrial or chloroplast extracts.     

光质对豇豆幼苗环旋运动的影响

为研究光质对豇豆(Vigna unguiculata)幼苗环旋运动的影响, 分别在暗箱的顶部和侧面固定一台红外检测仪, 在垂直生长方向分别设置白、红、蓝、红-蓝光源, 对豇豆幼苗生长点运动进行48 h的等间隔(5 min)拍照, 读取图片中豇豆幼苗生长点的轨迹坐标进行分析。结果表明: 黑暗下, 豇豆幼苗生长点的运动分为逆时针螺旋上升(约占1/3)和不规则的摆动上升(约占2/3)两类。螺旋上升持续时间为18.3 h, 后转为不规则的摆动上升, 环旋一周的时间为(82.7 ± 4.2) min, 最大摆幅为2.0 cm, 最小摆幅为0.5 cm。白光下为趋向光源摆动上升, 摆动幅度由大到小, 再变大, 最大摆幅为0.6 cm, 最小摆幅为0.1 cm。红光下为近直线趋向光源和垂直光源方向摆动两个阶段, 近直线趋向光源持续(21.9 ± 1.6) h, 垂直光源方向摆动持续(8.8 ± 0.5) h, 最大摆幅为3.5 cm, 最小摆幅为2.0 cm。蓝光下为“Z”形向光源上升运动, (110.0 ± 5.8) min和(223.5 ± 4.9) min两种周期交替进行。红-蓝光下趋向蓝光运动持续(12.0 ± 3.8) h后, 转慢速趋红光运动。不同光质下48 h内豇豆幼苗增长高度由高到低为: 红光>黑暗>蓝光>白光>红-蓝光。豇豆幼苗在没有光照下也产生环旋运动, 环旋运动不需要光的诱导, 但光质改变了幼苗运动的方向和速度。不同光质下豇豆幼苗有不同的运动形式, 但总体上都表现为趋光性。     

Isolation of L-ethionine resistant cell lines in Vigna sinensis L. after mutagen treatment

Chemical mutagenesis was employed for the isolation of variant cell lines resistant to L-Ethionine (L-Eth) in Vigna sinensis L. We have measured cell survival after treatment of Vigna sinensis cell suspensions with different mutagens: Ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS), N-methyl-N-nitrosoguanidine (NTG) and Acridine Orange (AO). NTG was more toxic than EMS and AO.L-Eth resistant colonies were isolated by plating on selective medium after NTG treatment. The frequencies of appearance of resistant cells of MS-3 media supplemented with 20 g/ml L-Eth were 1.3 × 10^-6 to 1.8 × 10^-5. The highest number of L-Eth resistant calli were recorded in cells treated with 10 g/ml NTG. Few resistant colonies also appeared spontaneously from non-mutagenized cultures with a frequency of 2.9 × 10^-7 to 5.7 × 10^-7. However, a number of isolated colonies were discarded after successive retesting. The number of resistant calli dropped from 204 to 22 during successive retests. The significance of these observations has also been discussed.     

An effect of shade on the boron requirement for leaf blade elongation in black gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper)

The present experiment was undertaken to examine whether shading affects the critical boron (B) concentration for leaf blade elongation in black gram. Six days after germination (D6), black gram seedlings were transferred to 8 pairs of pots containing basal nutrient solution: one pot of each pair contained 1 M H₃BO₃ and the other 10 M H₃BO₃. On D10, one day after the emergence of the first trifoliolate leaf blade (TF₁) and one day before the emergence of TF₂, four pairs of pots were shaded, decreasing the light intensity they received in the glasshouse to about 35% of full sunlight compared with 70% received by the unshaded plants. The response to B supply of dry matter (DM) and elongation rate (LBER) of TF₂ were less pronounced in shaded than in unshaded plants. Critical B concentrations for LBER in TF₂ of black gram were 10 mg B kg^-1DM in shaded and 15 mg B unshaded plants, suggesting that shading may have decreased the B requirement for LBER. Thus the present results suggest that light may need to be considered when setting critical values for the diagnosis of B deficiency in black gram.     

Promotion of elongation and acid invertase activity in Phaseolus vulgaris L. internode segments by phenylacetic acid

Phenylacetic acid (PAA) significantly stimulated the elongation of isolated Phaseolus vulgaris internodal segments and prevented the decline in acid invertase specific activity observed in segments incubated in the absence of growth substances. Unlike IAA, which stimulated both elongation and invertase activity over a very wide range of concentrations (<10^-4 - 1 mol.m^-3; optimum 10^-2 mol.m^-3), the response to PAA was restricted to a much narrower range of concentrations (3 × 10^-2 - 1 mol.m^-3; optimum ca. 1–2 × 10^-1mol.m^-3). At the optimum concentration of PAA, the stimulation of both responses was about 63–75% of that induced by the optimum concentration of IAA. The differences in the concentration range and magnitude of the responses to IAA and PAA were not due to differences in uptake of the two compounds. The stimulation of elongation by both compounds was prevented by 3.6 × 10^-2mol.m^-3 cycloheximide (CH), and acid invertase activites were greatly reduced compared with samples treated with growth substances alone. A saturating concentration of the specific auxin efflux carrier inhibitor N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) slightly promoted the growth of control segments, probably by reducing the loss of residual endogenous auxin to the incubation medium. The elongation induced by PAA at its optimum concentration was considerably greater than the elongation induced by NPA, indicating that PAA did not cause growth by preventing the loss of endogenous auxin from the segments. Elongation responses to combinations of IAA and PAA suggested that the compounds were acting additively and that they were affecting growth by the same mechanism.     

Modulation of leaf elongation, tiller appearance and tiller senescence in spring barley by far-red light

Supplemental far-red (FR) illumination of light-grown grass seedlings inhibits tiller production while enhancing leaf elongation. Although much is known about FR enhancement of internode elongation in dicots, relatively little research has been conducted to determine the effects of FR on monocot development. In growth chamber experiments, fibre optics were used to direct supplemental FR to elongating leaf blades, main stem bases and mature leaf blades of light-grown barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seedlings. Our objective was to identify specific sites of perception for FR enhancement of leaf elongation and inhibition of tiller production, and to assess potential FR effects on tiller senescence. Far-red illumination of elongating leaves or of the main stem base reduced the total number of tillers per plant, primarily by reducing secondary and tertiary tiller production, and enhanced leaf elongation. However, leaf elongation was less sensitive to stem base treatments than to illumination of the elongating blade. Increased leaf length resulted from increased leaf elongation rate, while the duration of leaf elongation was unaffected. Exposure of mature leaf blades to FR had no effect on tillering or leaf elongation. None of the FR treatments led to tiller senescence. Localization of FR perception in vertically oriented tissues such as elongating blades and stem bases permits early detection of reflected light from neighbouring plants, allowing rapid response to impending competition.     

Early detection of neighbour plants by phytochrome perception of spectral changes in reflected sunlight

Abstract We have tested the hypothesis that a plant may detect the presence of a neighboug42r, before being shaded by it, through the perception of the spectral composition of reflected sunlight. Within seedling canopies the red: far-red ratio (R: FR) of the light received by a sensor with a geometry approximating that of a stem was significantly reduced by selective reflection. This effect was observed before any reduction in the amount of photosynthetic light energy received by an individual seedling could be detected. Small green fences of grass, east-west orientated, altered the spectral distribution of the light on the north (sunlit) side of them. Fully illuminated seedlings of Sinapis alba grown on the north side of these green fences produced longer internodes and had a lower leaf: stem dry weight ratio than those grown in front of fences of bleached grasses. A similar redistribution of growth was elicited in seedlings of Chenopodium album, Datura ferox and S. alba growing in full sunlight by exposing plants to additional small quantities of far-red reflected by selective mirrors. These results suggest that the change in the R: FR ratio serves as an early warning signal of oncoming competition.     

Light quantity and quality interactions in the control of elongation growth in light-grown Chenopodium rubrum L. seedlings

The spectral control of hypocotyl elongation in light-grown Chenopodium rubrum L. seedlings has been studied. The results showed that although the seedlings responded to changes in the quantity of combined red and far-red radiation, they were also very sensitive to changes in the quantity of blue radiation reaching the plant. Altering the proportion of red: far-red radiation in broad waveband white light caused marked differences in hypocotyl extension. Comparison of the responses of green and chlorophyll-free seedlings indicated no qualitative difference in the response to any of the light sources used, although photosynthetically incompetent plants were more sensitive to all wavelengths. Blue light was found to act primarily of a photoreceptor which is different from phytochrome. It is concluded that hypocotyl extension rate in vegetation shade is photoregulated by the quantity of blue light and the proportion of red: far-red radiation. In neutral shade, such as that caused by stones or overlying soil, hypocotyl extension appears to be regulated primarily by the quantity of light in the blue waveband and secondarily by the quantity of light in the red and far-red wavebands.Abbreviations B blue - FR far-red - k ₁, k ₂ rate constants for photoconverison of Pr to Pfr and Pfr to Pr, respective - k ₁/k ₁ +k ₂= phytochrome photoequilibrium - k ₁ +k ₂= phytochrome cycling rate - Pr=R absorbing form of phytochrome - Pfr=FR absorbing form of phytochrome - P_tot Pr+Pfr - PAR photosynthetically active radiation = 400–700 nm - R red - WL white light     

The effect of far-red light on the photoperiodic regulation of carbohydrate accumulation in Allium cepa L.

Carbohydrate accumulation was induced in Allium cepa L. cv. Dorata di Parma by the addition of far-red light throughout the 18 h day. Neither an 18 h-day without far-red nor the addition of far-red light to a 10 h photoperiod could induce the carbohydrate accumulation. The accumulation of reducing sugar takes place both in the leaf-blades and in the bulb; while there is accumulation of oligosaccharides only in the bulb. The results implicate phytochrome in the promotion of carbohydrate accumulation by far-red light.