Loud calls of male Nilgiri langurs (Presbytis johnii): Age-, individual-, and population-specific differences

Adult male Nilgiri langurs (Presbytis johnii) utter loud call bouts consisting of one or more phrases. Phrases are made up of several units showing similar or different structural features. The units involved differ with respect to not only their physical structure but also their overall utilization: three vocal patterns are uttered exclusively by mature males living in bisexual groups or all-male bands and, in addition to being part of loud call bouts, are given during encounters with terrestrial predators; two vocal patterns are uttered by males and females, again not just as constituents of loud calls; and one vocal pattern is given exclusively by mature males living in bisexual groups. Within a given bout, phrases differ not only with respect to their composition but also in their temporal organization. In addition to the acoustic components, loud calls are regularly accompanied by stereotyped motoric displays. The motoric and acoustic components of loud call displays appear independently of each other and at different times during ontogeny. The development of the display is characterized by combination of units with different structural features and synchronization of vocal and motoric components. Although more evidence is needed, our observations suggest that the development of loud call displays coincides with the aquisitation of social maturation and competence and requires not only social experience but also a certain amount of motoric training. In spite of the high degree of ritualization, loud call displays are not completely fixed in form, but instead are open to individual- and population-specific variation.     

Sexual Selection in the Loud Calls of Male Primates: Signal Content and Function

Researchers have used sexual selection theory and hypotheses based on intersexual mate choice and intrasexual mate competition to explain the role of spontaneous long-distance vocalizations emitted by adult male primates, relying on the tacit assumption that assessment or identity cues are encoded in the vocalizations. I review the published literature and aim to substantiate a relationship between sexual selection and long-distance vocal communication in primates. First, I review findings from nonprimate taxa to determine the relative importance of inter- and intrasexual selection and to provide a background for examining primates. Next, I describe several hypotheses for signal content and function in adult male loud calls. Then, I examine the available data across Primates for evidence to support or to refute these hypotheses and to determine if they meet proposed criteria for demonstrating sexual selection [Snowdon, C. T. (2004). Sexual Selection in Primates: New and Comparative Perspectives]. Signal content refers to patterns of acoustic features within vocalizations from which listeners might extract cues or information about the signaler. I interpret signal function, in turn, from behavioral responses of receivers and assume it has ultimate effects on the evolution and design of acoustic signals if direct fitness consequences exist. After the general review across primates, I propose orangutans as a candidate species for further evaluation of sexual selection in vocal communication. The available evidence corroborates a demonstrable relationship between sexual selection and adult male loud calls based on individual recognition, but it is necessary to obtain additional data to affirm a direct benefit to reproductive success.     

Distribution and deployment ofPresbytis melalophos group in Sumatera,Indonesia

Pelage color and pattern, facial markings, cranial morphology, and vocalization have been studied comparatively in thePresbytis melalophos group in Sumatera. Pelage coloration of fetuses and neonates were described forP. melalophos andP. femoralis. Based on this study, three species —P. thomasi, P. melalophos, andP. femoralis — are recognized. Using field data that have been gathered since 1981, the distribution of these three species has been mapped. The resultant map reveals that no sympatry is known and that rivers form the interspecific boundaries. However, rivers apparently are not barriers to the dispersal of species in this group. Instead, distributions appear to be limited ecologically, by competitive exclusion. Historically, it appears that the ancestral stock initially dispersed throughout this area, then theP. melalophos stock split from theP. thomasi-P. femoralis stock, theP. thomasi stock split from theP. femoralis stock, and, finally, theP. femoralis stock dispersed to eastern Sumatera. It appears unlikely that the centrifugal speciation hypothesis based on the principle of metachromism applies to deployment of theP. melalophos group.     

Ecology and behavior ofPresbytis thomasi in Northern Sumatra

A field study of 23 bisexual troops, ranging in size from 3 to 21 members ( =8), and two all-male groups of the Thomas's leaf monkey (Presbytis thomasi) was conducted in North Sumatra from November 1981 to April 1984. Most troops (N=19 or 82.6%) contained only one adult male. Two troops and one group were most intensively studied. The home range was 12.3–15.7 ha for the two bisexual troops, and only 1.7 ha for the one, all-male, ten-member group. Fruits composed more than 50% of their diets. Vocalizations were classified into 13 types. Births occurred at any time of the year. Among three males of a bisexual troop, serious fights were observed: two males died of wounds and the former beta male became the new alpha male. After this social change, the home range area of this troop gradually shifted eastward. But, 3.5 months after the social change, a 9-month-old infant male stayed alone in the western part of its former range. Thereafter, he became a solitary male and sometimes went into the riverine area of the Bohorok river. The occurrence of male replacement suggests instability of multi-male organization in bisexual troops. Moreover, the different mortality rate between males and females and the unequal sex ratios forced by the formation of one-male troops, maintained high tension levels among males competing on females.     

Characterization and Social Correlates of Fecal Testosterone and Cortisol Excretion in Wild Male <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saguinus mystax</Emphasis>

Reproductive success in male primates can be influenced by testosterone (T) and cortisol (C). We examined them in wild Saguinus mystax via fecal hormone analysis. Firstly, we wanted to characterize male hormonal status over the course of the year. Further we tested the influence of the reproductive status of the breeding female, social instability, and intergroup encounter rates on T levels, comparing the results with predictions of the challenge hypothesis (Wingfield et al., 1990). We also tested for interindividual differences in hormonal levels, possibly related to social or breeding status. We collected data during a 12-mo study on 2 groups of moustached tamarins at the Estación Biológica Quebrada Blanco in northeastern Peru. We found fairly similar T and C levels over the course of the year for all males. Yet an elevation of T shortly after the birth of infants, during the phase of ovarian inactivity of the groups breeding female, was evident. Hormonal levels were not significantly elevated during a phase of social instability, did not correlate with intergroup encounter rates, and did not differ between breeding and nonbreeding males. Our results confirm the challenge hypothesis (Wingfield et al., 1990). The data suggest that reproductive competition in moustached tamarins is not based on endocrinological, but instead on behavioral mechanisms, possibly combined with sperm competition.     

Loud calls ofGalago crassicaudatus andG. garnettii and their relation to habitat structure

Long distance vocalizations have been shown to be good indicators of genetic species in primates. Here the loud calls of two recently identified greater galago taxa —Galago crassicaudatus andG. garnettii — are compared and analyzed statistically. Observed differences in call structures are investigated further as potential indicators of differences in the structures of habitats frequented by the two species. Although the calls share a repetitive structure, and show similar dominant frequency bands (1,000 – 1,500 Hz), they differ significantly in the number of units per call, unit duration, inter-unit interval, highest frequency, lowest frequency, dominant frequency band, first harmonic, and call duration. The duration of theG. crassicaudatus call is more than twice that ofG. garnettii. Strong intraspecific consistency is seen in the most energetic frequency bands (dominant frequency band and first harmonic), and durations of the individual units and inter-unit intervals. Information important to species recognition is thus most likely to be contained in these features. Individual recognition may be encoded in the relative emphasis of higher level harmonics. The frequency structures of the calls will reflect requirements for acoustical transmission in a forest environment, as well as structural constraints imposed by body size. Higher frequencies detected in theG. garnettii call (up to 8,500 Hz) may have a functional significance related to distance estimation, or may simply be a reflection of smaller body size. The greater modulation of theG. garnettii call suggests that its habitat constitutes a denser or more turbulent medium for sound transmission than does the habitat ofG. crassicaudatus.     

Sex Differential Behavior of Immature Hanuman Langurs (Presbytis entellus) in Ramnagar, South Nepal

We investigated sex differences in the social behavior of immature Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) in the light of sex-specifically different life-courses and Hanuman langur characteristics, such as the individualistic dominance hierarchy and the rarity of intragroup coalitions among adult females. We observed four immature female and four immature male langurs—all members of the same free-ranging multimale multifemale group in Ramnagar, South Nepal—from November 1992 to February 1993 for 288 hr via focal-animal and instantaneous sampling techniques. Immature females spent significantly more time in proximity to other group members than immature males did. They had more physical contact and groomed more. Other immature females were their preferred social partners. Immature males also preferred like-aged females. They restricted their relationships with other immature males to proximity and occasional grooming. Monitoring was directed especially toward adult males. Female behavior can be interpreted as oriented toward integration into the female social network and their age-inverted dominance hierarchy. Males seem to prepare for leaving their natal group and for future strong intrasexual competition.     

The song of the Indris (Indri indri; Primates: Lemuroidea): Natural history,form, and function

The song of the largest Malagasy lemur was extensively studied in the field between 1972 and 1984. The song’s structure is described, and the role of song in the natural history of Indriis examined by relating the naturally occurring variability of different song parameters to the behavior of habituated groups and the composition of other groups in the population. The function of an Indrigroup’s song is complex, varying according to the location and identity of animals hearing it. Territorial aspects of the song are considered in detail and the nature of primate territorial vocalizations is critically discussed.     

雄性大熊猫褪黑素与睾酮季节性变化

褪黑素通过调控下丘脑-垂体-性腺内分泌轴使季节性繁殖动物在适宜的季节进行繁殖活动.大熊猫(Ailuropoda melanoleuca)在春季集中繁殖.为探究雄性大熊猫褪黑素和睾酮的季节性变化规律,本研究选取成都大熊猫繁育研究基地3只成年雄性大熊猫作为实验对象,在自然光照下对这3只大熊猫进行每周1次为期1年(2018年...     

圈养雄獐领域行为和粪便睾酮水平变化的关系

2011年8月到2012年4月间,在上海市浦东新区华夏公园獐重引入试点,采用目标取样、扫描取样和全事件记录法,对圈养条件下6只成体雄獐(Hydropotes inermis)的6种领域行为进行观察,并利用放射免疫分析法(RIA)测定雄獐粪便中的睾酮水平变化.结果表明,雄獐的许多领域行为发生频次表现出明显的月间变化,包括打斗、威胁、取代、追逐和粪尿标记;擦额标记行为频次虽月间差异不显著,但与其他领域行为一样在11月份出现频次峰值.发情期(2011年10月～2012年1月)和非发情期(2011年9月、2012年2～4月),打斗、威胁、粪尿标记和擦额标记行为发生频次差异显著;取代和追逐行为频次差异不显著.6种领域行为的发生频次均在发情期明显高于非发情期.粪便睾酮含量在发情期和非发情期差异显著,发情期明显高于非发情期,其含量在12月份达到峰值(51.16±9.85) ng/g.雄獐的威胁、擦额标记、粪尿标记和打斗行为发生频次与睾酮水平呈显著的正相关性,而取代和追逐行为与睾酮水平变化不具有显著相关性.     

Sex-Related Differences in Blood and Gonad Levels of Testosterone in Silver Fox Fetuses

The mass of silver fox fetuses of both sexes, their gonads, and adrenals, and the levels of testosterone in the blood serum and in gonads and adrenals were determined from day 31 of gestation and every five days thereafter until its termination. Marked sex-related differences were revealed: the blood and gonad levels of testosterone in male fetuses were much higher than those in female fetuses. The fetal adrenals contained significantly less testosterone than the gonads. No sex-related differences in the content of testosterone in the fetal adrenals were found. No differences were found in the body and adrenal mass in female and male fetuses at all the developmental stages studied, while the mass of ovaries exceeded that of testes from day 45 of gestation. The data obtained suggest sex dimorphism in the production of testosterone by gonads in silver foxes appears after day 35 and appears to correspond to the period of morphological differentiation of gonads.     

Male competition and coalitions in langurs (Presbytis entellus) at Jodhpur,Rajasthan, India

During a 15 month study on free ranging langurs (Presbytis entellus) at Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India, 5 adult male replacements were observed as a result of nontroop male invasions into the home ranges of 3 neighbouring one-male troops comprising 16–28 members each. Jodhpur langurs have no breeding season. Periods of instability during resident male changes lasted 11–119 days. Linear dominance hierarchies could be detected within the 3 main rival male bands of 2, 5, and 28–35 members. The respective alphas drove their allies away after their bands succeeded cooperatively at occupying a troop. During gradual replacements interim residencies alternated with multi-male stages. A large band's alpha may have had better chances to win the competition, since adult and nonadult allies functioned as “buffers” in agonistic encounters. The role of kin selection in structuring the composition of male bands and male coalitional behaviour cannot yet be quantified. Tactical “deceit” of powerful males to cause unrealistic expectations and in this way agonistic engagement of less strong males can be ruled out. “Sneaking copulations” is a proximate advantage for subordinate supporters, since they participated in 61.9% of all sexual interactions. Female promiscuity might reflect a strategy to induce male-male competition and thus select for a strong resident.     

Testosterone and prolactin in two songbirds that differ in paternal care: the Blue-headed Vireo and the Red-eyed Vireo

We investigated the hypothesis that species differences in paternal care in birds may result from differences in concentrations of circulating testosterone (T) and prolactin (PRL). Concentrations of plasma T and PRL were compared in breeding Blue-headed Vireos (Vireo solitarius) and Red-eyed Vireos (Vireo olivaceus), passerine congeners with biparental and maternal incubation, respectively. In male Blue-headed Vireos, plasma T remained low from prenesting to fledgling stages; whereas in male Red-eyed Vireos, plasma T was highest during prenesting and progressively decreased during incubation, nestling, and fledgling stages. In male Blue-headed Vireos, plasma PRL was similar to that in female Blue-headed Vireos and was higher than in male Red-eyed Vireos at all breeding stages. Plasma PRL increased in male Red-eyed Vireos at the incubation stage and remained moderately elevated through the nestling and fledgling stages. In male Blue-headed Vireos, the combination of high PRL and low T during the prenesting stage may promote brood patch formation and nest building, and, at later stages, incubation and feeding of young. In male Red-eyed Vireos, high PRL and low T during incubation and nestling stages may facilitate the feeding of young, as seen in males of other species. Our observations support the hypothesis that differences in paternal care reflect differences in circulating T and PRL.     

Taxonomy and distribution ofPresbytis melalophos group in Sumatera,Indonesia

Taxonomy of thePresbytis melalophos group in Sumatera has been based solely on the distinction in the pelage coloration and has been a subject of controversy. In the present study, extensive field observations were undertaken. Three species, i. e.P. melalophos, P. thomasi, andP. femoralis, are recognized in Sumatera based on the cranial morphology, pelage coloration, and vocalization. Subspecies of each species are revised, a new classification is proposed, and a new subspecies,Presbytis melalophos bicolor, is described. A detailed distribution map of species and subspecies is presented. No sympatry occurs between the species. Finally, a cladistic analysis is presented for the three species, based on the cranial characters; the branching sequence is first between theP. melalophos clade and theP. femoralis- P. thomasi clade and second between theP. femoralis clade and theP. thomasi clade.     

Female Coalitions Against Male Aggression in Wild Chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest

In the wild, female chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are subject to male aggression that at times can be prolonged or particularly violent. There are no reports of cooperative retaliation to such aggression, a strategy observed in the congeneric Pan paniscus, from the wild despite >4 decades of detailed behavioral study across a number of populations and its occurrence among captive female chimpanzees. If the reports from captivity represent an inherent capacity, then the absence of similar reports from wild populations suggests that females may be able to form coalitions only under appropriate ecological and demographic conditions. During a study of male and female aggressive interactions among chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest, Uganda, wild adult female chimpanzees sometimes formed coalitions with one another to retaliate against male aggression. This may be possible because these females tend to be more gregarious than in other populations of East African chimpanzees, as other studies of the same population have suggested; the extent and variation of female chimpanzee social strategies may, therefore, need reconsideration. Further, my observations strengthen the argument that at least some of the differences between chimpanzees and bonobos may be more of degree than of kind.     

文心兰不育花粉粒形态观察及相关基因克隆与表达分析

该研究以文心兰品种‘柠檬绿’（雄性不育）和‘巧克力’（可育）为试验材料,对花粉团和花粉粒的形态进行观察,并在转录组数据分析的基础上,利用RT PCR技术从‘柠檬绿’中克隆了1个MYB转录因子基因（OnMYB106）,用qRT PCR技术分析该基因的相对表达量,以初步鉴定‘柠檬绿’花粉败育特征,揭示花粉败育与OnMYB106基因的调控关系。结果显示：（1）‘柠檬绿’花粉团药室明显变扁,外壁凹陷、皱缩。（2）‘柠檬绿’花粉细胞内含物缺失,细胞质空泡化严重,花粉粒形态异常,花粉壁发育不连续,有许多孔洞（并非萌发孔）。（3）成功克隆获得‘柠檬绿’MYB106的基因序列,命名为OnMYB106,其开放阅读框为819 bp,编码272个氨基酸;其基因组序列与cDNA比对显示,OnMYB106基因含有3个外显子和2个内含子。（4）生物信息学分析表明,OnMYB106属于SANT 超家族,具有2个连续的MYB DNA binding结构域,是一个典型的R2R3 MYB转录因子;进化树分析表明,OnMYB106与高粱、水稻和二穗短柄草的MYB106蛋白序列的一致性最高,进化距离最近。（5）qRT PCR分析显示,OnMYB106在‘柠檬绿’花粉团中下调表达;该基因在‘柠檬绿’不同组织器官中均有表达,但在花中表达量最高,假鳞茎中表达量最低;在不同花期中,花苞期表达量最高,盛开期只有微量表达。研究认为,‘柠檬绿’花粉壁发育异常可能导致其花粉败育;OnMYB106基因可能在‘柠檬绿’花器官的生长发育中起重要的调控作用,并且该基因可能属于花粉发育“早期”表达基因,主要影响‘柠檬绿’花粉壁的的形成。     

Intergroup calls of male pig-tailed langurs (Simias concolor)

Pig-tailed langurs (Simias concolor) were observed in the Pagai Islands and in Siberut. They lived in 1-male groups containing from one to five or more females plus their young. Adult males produced loud vocalizations of the sortGautier andGautier (1977) called “type 1 loud calls.” The pig-tailed langur's type 1 loud call (TOLC) was a series of 2 to 25 nasal barks, the loudest of which could be heard for 500 m or more in the rain forest. Exchange of TOLC's between males was the only frequent intergroup interaction. Fifty-one percent of TOLC's were emitted spontaneously, 33% occurred in response to TOLC's of other males, 13% to falling trees, 4% in response to thunder, and 1% during a fight between males of different groups. Although TOLC's occurred throughout the day, they exhibited a bimodal distribution, with a peak of calling early in the morning, and another in late afternoon. Tape-recorded TOLC's played back in the field stimulated males hearing them to emit TOLC's of their own. Barks in experimentally-elicited TOLC's were delivered at a faster rate than barks in other TOLC's were. While TOLC's mediate intergroup communication among males, field playback experiments are needed to truly elucidate their functions.     

Habitat Quality and Activity Budgets of White-Headed Langurs in Fusui,China

Within a species, habitat quality may be a factor causing different activity budgets between populations. The habitat of white-headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) has been seriously disturbed in Fusui Rare and Precious Animal Nature Reserve, China, where we carried out a study of their socioecology from September 1997 to September 1998. We collected data on langur activity budgets from the main population located in the central part of a group of limestone hills. We classified habitat quality into 4 grades according to the extent of human disturbance. We showed that the two main study groups of white-headed langurs spent on average 50% of time resting, 13% feeding, 18% moving (including foraging), 11% grooming, and 7% playing. Langur time budgets showed no significant seasonal change, but they differed among different sex-age classes. Infants and juveniles spent about 20.3% of time playing, whereas adults spent only 0.2% playing. The group in high quality habitat engaged less in feeding and more in playing than the group in low quality habitat did. Habitat quality influenced the playing time of young white-headed langurs and may be vital to their successful maturation.     

Starvation and the Mating Success of Wild Male Mediterranean Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Recent evidence suggests that the nutritional state of male Mediterranean fruit flies, Ceratitis capitata (Wied.) (medfly), is an important influence on various components of their reproductive biology, including mating success. The objective of the present study was to examine experimentally the effect of temporary starvation on the mating success of wild male C. capitata. Males were maintained on protein–sugar or sugar-only diets, and for each diet we compared the mating success of continuously fed males versus males starved for 18 or 24 h immediately before testing. In trials conducted on field-caged, host trees, males starved for 24 h obtained only about half as many matings as fed males for both diets. However, when the starvation period was 18 h, starved males reared on the protein–sugar diet mated significantly less frequently than fed males, whereas starved males reared on sugar mated as often as fed males. Measurements of male pheromone calling and female attraction revealed that reduced mating success likely reflected the decreased signaling activity of starved males.