RIPK3翻译后修饰调控细胞程序性坏死的研究进展

细胞程序性坏死是一种不依赖于Caspase、可调控的细胞死亡方式,参与多种疾病的病理过程,如病毒或病原菌感染、动脉硬化、心脏缺血再灌注和肿瘤等。受体相互作用蛋白激酶3(receptor-interacting protein kinase 3, RIPK3)是细胞程序性坏死的关键调控分子,可与受体相互作用蛋白激酶1(receptor-interacting protein kinase 1, RIPK1)形成坏死小体,激活混合谱系激酶结构域样蛋白(mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase, MLKL),导致细胞膜破裂和细胞死亡。近年来,越来越多研究发现RIPK3活性可受多种翻译后修饰如磷酸化、泛素化、糖基化和蛋白水解切割等调控。该文就RIPK3翻译后修饰在调控细胞程序性坏死信号转导中的作用进行综述,期望为靶向RIPK3的药物设计及细胞程序性坏死相关疾病的治疗提供理论依据。     

坏死性凋亡研究进展

程序性细胞死亡对于机体的生长发育及组织器官的稳态具有重要作用.坏死性凋亡是最近发现的一种可调控的程序性细胞死亡方式,其在形态学上具有坏死的特征.目前的研究表明,坏死性凋亡是由受体结合丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶3(receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 3,RIPK3)以及其底物混合谱系激酶结构域样蛋白(mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein,MLKL)共同介导.细胞的增殖和死亡在维持机体内环境稳态中发挥重要作用,大量研究表明坏死性凋亡的失调和人类疾病的发展密切相关,比如炎症性疾病、自身免疫性疾病、肿瘤以及退行性病变.在这篇综述中,将讨论坏死性凋亡的分子机制及其相关疾病的研究进展.     

受体相互作用蛋白激酶3的病理生理学作用及研究进展

受体相互作用蛋白激酶3(receptor interacting protein kinase 3,RIPK3)是受体相互作用的丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶家族成员,可通过RIPK1-RIPK3-混合谱系激酶结构域样蛋白(mixed lineage kinase domain like protein,MLKL)途径或钙/钙调素依赖性蛋白激酶Ⅱ(Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinaseⅡ,CaMKⅡ)介导坏死性凋亡,进而调节炎症反应和氧化应激,在心脏、脑、肝脏、肾脏等损伤和病毒感染中发挥重要作用。多种化合物可抑制RIPK3或者坏死性凋亡,具有潜在的临床应用前景。本文系统综述了RIPK3的病理生理学作用及相关研究进展。     

RIP3介导程序性坏死与炎症研究进展CSCD

受体相互作用蛋白激酶3(receptor-interacting protein kinase 3,RIP3/RIPK3)是RIP家族中的一员,具有丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶活性,通过与RIP1形成坏死复合体能够介导caspase非依赖的细胞坏死。研究发现,RIP3也参与众多感染和无菌性炎性疾病的病理进程。本文就RIP3在细胞程序性坏死方面的调控机制和其在坏死依赖性与非依赖性炎症方面作一综述。     

受体相互作用蛋白3——细胞凋亡与坏死的调节阀

综述了受体相互作用蛋白(RIPs)蛋白结构和RIP3调控细胞凋亡与坏死机制的研究进展．受体相互作用蛋白3(receptor-interacting protein 3, RIP3)是丝/苏氨酸蛋白激酶家族成员之一,该蛋白质家族包含一类高度保守的丝/苏氨酸激酶结构域．RIP家族激酶作为细胞应激传感分子,在调控细胞凋亡、细胞坏死和存活通路中发挥重要作用．近年发现,RIP3参与肿瘤坏死因子TNFα诱导的细胞程序化坏死的生物学过程．认识RIP3调控TNFα诱导的细胞凋亡与坏死不同死亡途径转换的分子机制,有助于发现肿瘤治疗的新策略．     

RIP3介导程序性坏死与炎症研究进展

受体相互作用蛋白激酶3(receptor-interacting protein kinase 3,RIP3/RIPK3)是RIP家族中的一员,具有丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶活性,通过与RIP1形成坏死复合体能够介导caspase非依赖的细胞坏死。研究发现,RIP3也参与众多感染和无菌性炎性疾病的病理进程。本文就RIP3在细胞程序性坏死方面的调控机制和其在坏死依赖性与非依赖性炎症方面作一综述。     

RIP1介导肿瘤坏死因子α诱导的L929细胞凋亡与程序性坏死

肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor alpha,TNFα)诱导的L929细胞死亡是研究细胞程序性坏死的重要模型,但也有报道称,TNFα处理后的L929细胞发生了凋亡。该研究以所在实验室保存的L929细胞(L929-A)和从商业化细胞库购买的L929细胞(L929-N)为模型,进一步鉴定了TNFα诱导的L929细胞死亡类型与调控机制。结果发现,TNFα处理后的L929-A细胞中出现了凋亡特征,且阻断胱冬肽酶(caspase)信号通路可显著抑制TNFα诱导的L929-A细胞死亡,但却促进TNFα诱导的L929-N细胞死亡。此外,受体相互作用蛋白1(receptor-interacting protein 1,RIP1)在TNFα诱导的两种L929细胞死亡过程中都具有关键性的调控作用,表明TNFα处理后的L929-A细胞发生了RIP1依赖的细胞凋亡,而L929-N细胞发生了程序性坏死(necroptosis)。同时,启动细胞程序性坏死的关键蛋白RIP3(receptor-interacting protein 3)在L929-N细胞中表达水平显著高于L929-A细胞,因此,RIP3的这种差异表达可能是决定两种L929细胞在TNFα处理后发生不同类型细胞程序性死亡的重要原因。     

风疹病毒衣壳蛋白与宿主细胞相互作用蛋白的初步筛选及分析

风疹病毒(Rubella virus,RV)的衣壳蛋白(Capsid protein,CP)不仅是病毒颗粒的重要组成部分,而且还可以通过与宿主蛋白之间的相互作用来调控病毒的转录和复制.为了系统研究衣壳蛋白与宿主蛋白之间的相互作用关系,我们从RV基因组中克隆获得衣壳蛋白基因序列,将该序列导入含有eXact-6His串联亲和纯化标签的慢病毒表达载体中,并构建了稳定表达eXact-6His-Capsid融合蛋白的293T细胞系.通过eXact和6His标签的两次亲和纯化获得衣壳蛋白相互作用蛋白复合物,质谱检测并筛选后发现22个可能与衣壳蛋白相互作用的宿主蛋白.随后构建衣壳蛋白的相互作用网络并进行功能学分析,发现其相互作用蛋白主要参与病毒感染、RNA剪切、细胞凋亡及酶相关通路等过程.     

程序性坏死参与油酸诱导的大鼠急性呼吸窘迫综合征的发病过程（英文）

本研究旨在明确程序性坏死在急性呼吸窘迫综合征(acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS)发病中的作用。通过尾静脉注射油酸(oleic acid,OA)制备大鼠ARDS模型,并观察4 h。通过动脉血气分析、肺干湿重比(lung wet-dry weight ratio,W/D)、肺组织HE染色及肺泡灌洗液(bronchoalveolar lavage fluid,BALF)中总蛋白测定、白细胞计数及分类计数来评估ARDS模型。通过ELISA检测BALF中肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor alpha,TNF-α)水平。通过免疫组化和蛋白免疫印迹观察受体相互作用蛋白激酶1(receptor interacting protein kinase 1,RIPK1)、RIPK3、mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein(MLKL)在肺组织中的表达水平。通过免疫沉淀观察RIPK1和RIPK3之间的相互作用。结果显示,OA注射4 h后,与对照组比较,OA组大鼠肺泡-动脉氧分压差[P(A-a)O2]、W/D、BALF中白细胞总数、中性粒细胞比例、蛋白浓度及TNF-α水平均显著上升,而氧合指数(Pa O2/Fi O2)下降;OA组大鼠肺组织中RIPK1、RIPK3、MLKL表达明显增加,且RIPK1与RIPK3之间的相互作用显著增强。以上结果表明,在ARDS的发生、发展过程中,TNF-α分泌增加,RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL信号通路被激活并表达上调,提示程序性坏死可能在ARDS的发病机制中发挥作用,这可能为治疗ARDS的新药开发提供新思路。型。通过ELISA检测BALF中肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor alpha,TNF-α)水平。通过免疫组化和蛋白免疫印迹观察受体相互作用蛋白激酶1(receptor interacting protein kinase 1,RIPK1)、RIPK3、mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein(MLKL)在肺组织中的表达水平。通过免疫沉淀观察RIPK1和RIPK3之间的相互作用。结果显示,OA注射4 h后,与对照组比较,OA组大鼠肺泡-动脉氧分压差[P(A-a)O_2]、W/D、BALF中白细胞总数、中性粒细胞比例、蛋白浓度及TNF-α水平均显著上升,而氧合指数(Pa O_2/Fi O_2)下降;OA组大鼠肺组织中RIPK1、RIPK3、MLKL表达明显增加,且RIPK1与RIPK3之间的相互作用显著增强。以上结果表明,在ARDS的发生、发展过程中,TNF-α分泌增加,RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL信号通路被激活并表达上调,提示程序性坏死可能在ARDS的发病机制中发挥作用,这可能为治疗ARDS的新药开发提供新思路。     

程序性细胞坏死的分子机制及其在炎症中的作用

越来越多的研究表明,细胞坏死是一种受到精密调控的"新型"程序性细胞死亡方式。当细胞凋亡不能正常发生而细胞必须死亡时,坏死作为凋亡的"替补"方式被激活。程序性细胞坏死主要由肿瘤坏死因子受体(tumor necrosis factor receptor,TNFR)家族以及Toll样受体(Toll-like receptor,TLR)家族启动,并通过和受体蛋白互作的两个蛋白激酶RIP1(receptor interacting protein kinase 1)和RIP3(receptor interacting protein kinase 3)传递死亡信号,募集并磷酸化MLKL(mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein),而MLKL作为细胞死亡的执行者最终会导致坏死的发生。坏死的细胞会向周围释放其内容物,这些内容物作为DAMPs(damage-associated molecular pattern molecules)可刺激周围细胞发生炎症反应,激活机体免疫应答。该文以TNF-α诱导的细胞坏死途径为出发点,着重阐述程序性细胞坏死的分子机制及其在炎症中的作用,并回顾和展望了其在临床诊疗中的可能性。     

The Lck inhibitor,AMG-47a,blocks necroptosis and implicates RIPK1 in signalling downstream of MLKL

Necroptosis is a form of caspase-independent programmed cell death that arises from disruption of cell membranes by the mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) pseudokinase after its activation by the upstream kinases, receptor interacting protein kinase (RIPK)-1 and RIPK3, within a complex known as the necrosome. Dysregulated necroptosis has been implicated in numerous inflammatory pathologies. As such, new small molecule necroptosis inhibitors are of great interest, particularly ones that operate downstream of MLKL activation, where the pathway is less well defined. To better understand the mechanisms involved in necroptosis downstream of MLKL activation, and potentially uncover new targets for inhibition, we screened known kinase inhibitors against an activated mouse MLKL mutant, leading us to identify the lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) inhibitor AMG-47a as an inhibitor of necroptosis. We show that AMG-47a interacts with both RIPK1 and RIPK3, that its ability to protect from cell death is dependent on the strength of the necroptotic stimulus, and that it blocks necroptosis most effectively in human cells. Moreover, in human cell lines, we demonstrate that AMG-47a can protect against cell death caused by forced dimerisation of MLKL truncation mutants in the absence of any upstream signalling, validating that it targets a process downstream of MLKL activation. Surprisingly, however, we also found that the cell death driven by activated MLKL in this model was completely dependent on the presence of RIPK1, and to a lesser extent RIPK3, although it was not affected by known inhibitors of these kinases. Together, these results suggest an additional role for RIPK1, or the necrosome, in mediating human necroptosis after MLKL is phosphorylated by RIPK3 and provide further insight into reported differences in the progression of necroptosis between mouse and human cells.Subject terms: Kinases, Necroptosis     

Staurosporine Induces Necroptotic Cell Death under Caspase-Compromised Conditions in U937 Cells

For a long time necrosis was thought to be an uncontrolled process but evidences recently have revealed that necrosis can also occur in a regulated manner. Necroptosis, a type of programmed necrosis is defined as a death receptor-initiated process under caspase-compromised conditions. The process requires the kinase activity of receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 and 3 (RIPK1 and RIPK3) and mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL), as a substrate of RIPK3. The further downstream events remain elusive. We applied known inhibitors to characterize the contributing enzymes in necroptosis and their effect on cell viability and different cellular functions were detected mainly by flow cytometry. Here we report that staurosporine, the classical inducer of intrinsic apoptotic pathway can induce necroptosis under caspase-compromised conditions in U937 cell line. This process could be hampered at least partially by the RIPK1 inhibitor necrotstin-1 and by the heat shock protein 90 kDa inhibitor geldanamycin. Moreover both the staurosporine-triggered and the classical death ligand-induced necroptotic pathway can be effectively arrested by a lysosomal enzyme inhibitor CA-074-OMe and the recently discovered MLKL inhibitor necrosulfonamide. We also confirmed that the enzymatic role of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PARP) is dispensable in necroptosis but it contributes to membrane disruption in secondary necrosis. In conclusion, we identified a novel way of necroptosis induction that can facilitate our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of necroptosis. Our results shed light on alternative application of staurosporine, as a possible anticancer therapeutic agent. Furthermore, we showed that the CA-074-OMe has a target in the signaling pathway leading to necroptosis. Finally, we could differentiate necroptotic and secondary necrotic processes based on participation of PARP enzyme.     

A toolbox for imaging RIPK1, RIPK3, and MLKL in mouse and human cells

Necroptosis is a lytic, inflammatory cell death pathway that is dysregulated in many human pathologies. The pathway is executed by a core machinery comprising the RIPK1 and RIPK3 kinases, which assemble into necrosomes in the cytoplasm, and the terminal effector pseudokinase, MLKL. RIPK3-mediated phosphorylation of MLKL induces oligomerization and translocation to the plasma membrane where MLKL accumulates as hotspots and perturbs the lipid bilayer to cause death. The precise choreography of events in the pathway, where they occur within cells, and pathway differences between species, are of immense interest. However, they have been poorly characterized due to a dearth of validated antibodies for microscopy studies. Here, we describe a toolbox of antibodies for immunofluorescent detection of the core necroptosis effectors, RIPK1, RIPK3, and MLKL, and their phosphorylated forms, in human and mouse cells. By comparing reactivity with endogenous proteins in wild-type cells and knockout controls in basal and necroptosis-inducing conditions, we characterise the specificity of frequently-used commercial and recently-developed antibodies for detection of necroptosis signaling events. Importantly, our findings demonstrate that not all frequently-used antibodies are suitable for monitoring necroptosis by immunofluorescence microscopy, and methanol- is preferable to paraformaldehyde-fixation for robust detection of specific RIPK1, RIPK3, and MLKL signals.Subject terms: Cell biology, Kinases     

Regulation of RIPK3- and RHIM-dependent Necroptosis by the Proteasome

Receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) is a serine/threonine kinase with essential function in necroptosis. The activity of RIPK3 is controlled by phosphorylation. Once activated, RIPK3 phosphorylates and activates the downstream effector mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) to induce necroptosis. In certain situations, RIPK3 has also been shown to promote apoptosis or cytokine expression in a necroptosis and kinase-independent manner. The ubiquitin-proteasome system is the major pathway for selective degradation of cellular proteins and thus has a critical role in many cellular processes such as cell survival and cell death. Clinically, proteasome inhibition has shown promise as an anti-cancer agent. Here we show that the proteasome inhibitors MG132 and bortezomib activate the RIPK3-MLKL necroptotic pathway in mouse fibroblasts as well as human leukemia cells. Unlike necroptosis induced by classical TNF-like cytokines, necroptosis induced by proteasome inhibitors does not require caspase inhibition. However, an intact RIP homotypic interaction motif (RHIM) is essential. Surprisingly, when recruitment of MLKL to RIPK3 is restricted, proteasome inhibitors induced RIPK3-dependent apoptosis. Proteasome inhibition led to accumulation of K48-linked ubiquitinated RIPK3, which was partially reduced when Lys-264 was mutated. Taken together, these results reveal the ubiquitin-proteasome system as a novel regulatory mechanism for RIPK3-dependent necroptosis.     

Roles of necroptosis in alcoholic liver disease and hepatic pathogenesis

Chronic alcohol consumption can cause alcoholic liver disease (ALD), leading to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Complex disease progression of ALD varies from alcoholic fatty liver to alcoholic steatohepatitis, eventually contributing to fibrosis and cirrhosis. Accumulating evidence revealed that necroptosis, a way of programmed cell death different from apoptosis and traditional necrosis, is involved in the underlying pathogenic molecular mechanism of ALD. Receptor‐interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), RIPK3 and mixed‐lineage kinase domain‐like pseudokinase have been implicated as key mediators to execute necroptosis. Also, necroptosis has gained increasing attention due to its potential association with primary pathological hallmarks of ALD, including oxidative stress, hepatic steatosis and inflammation. This review summarizes the recent progress on the roles and mechanisms of necroptosis and focuses on the crosstalk between necroptosis and the other pathogenesis of ALD, providing a theoretical basis for targeting necroptosis as a novel treatment for ALD.

Necroptosis has been implicated as a novel type of programmed cell death, which is mediated by RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL. When caspases are inhibited, RIPK1 interacts with RIPK3 to form a complex called ‘necrosome’ and initiates necroptosis. The activation of RIPK1 and RIPK3 is modulated by post‐translational modifications, including ubiquitination and phosphorylation, which is essential to control necroptosis     

Roles of receptor‐interacting protein kinase 1 in SH‐SY5Y cells with beta amyloid‐induced neurotoxicity

Alzheimer''s disease (AD), the major cause of dementia, affects the elderly population worldwide. Previous studies have shown that depletion of receptor‐interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) expression reverted the AD phenotype in murine AD models. Necroptosis, executed by mixed lineage kinase domain‐like (MLKL) protein and activated by RIPK1 and RIPK3, has been shown to be involved in AD. However, the role of RIPK1 in beta‐amyloid (Aβ)‐induced necroptosis is not yet fully understood. In this study, we explored the role of RIPK1 in the SH‐SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells treated with Aβ 1–40 or Aβ 1–42. We showed that Aβ‐induced neuronal cell death was independent of apoptosis and autophagy pathways. Further analyses depicted that activation of RIPK1/MLKL‐dependant necroptosis pathway was observed in vitro. We demonstrated that inhibition of RIPK1 expression rescued the cells from Aβ‐induced neuronal cell death and ectopic expression of RIPK1 was found to enhance the stability of the endogenous APP. In summary, our findings demonstrated that Aβ can potentially drive necroptosis in an RIPK1‐MLKL‐dependent manner, proposing that RIPK1 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD.     

Quantitative analysis of phosphoproteome in necroptosis reveals a role of TRIM28 phosphorylation in promoting necroptosis-induced cytokine production

Necroptosis is a form of regulated necrotic cell death that promotes inflammation. In cells undergoing necroptosis, activated RIPK1 kinase mediates the formation of RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL complex to promote MLKL oligomerization and execution of necroptosis. RIPK1 kinase activity also promotes cell-autonomous activation of proinflammatory cytokine production in necroptosis. However, the signaling pathways downstream of RIPK1 kinase in necroptosis and how RIPK1 kinase activation controls inflammatory response induced by necroptosis are still largely unknown. Here, we quantitatively measured the temporal dynamics of over 7000 confident phosphorylation-sites during necroptosis using mass spectrometry. Our study defined a RIPK1-dependent phosphorylation pattern in late necroptosis that is associated with a proinflammatory component marked by p-S473 TRIM28. We show that the activation of p38 MAPK mediated by oligomerized MLKL promotes the phosphorylation of S473 TRIM28, which in turn mediates inflammation during late necroptosis. Taken together, our study illustrates a mechanism by which p38 MAPK may be activated by oligomerized MLKL to promote inflammation in necroptosis.Subject terms: Cell biology, Immunology     

Depletion of RIPK3 or MLKL blocks TNF-driven necroptosis and switches towards a delayed RIPK1 kinase-dependent apoptosis

In human cells, the RIPK1–RIPK3–MLKL–PGAM5–Drp1 axis drives tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced necroptosis through mitochondrial fission, but whether this pathway is conserved among mammals is not known. To answer this question, we analyzed the presence and functionality of the reported necroptotic axis in mice. As in humans, knockdown of receptor-interacting kinase-3 (RIPK3) or mixed lineage kinase domain like (MLKL) blocks TNF-induced necroptosis in L929 fibrosarcoma cells. However, repression of either of these proteins did not protect the cells from death, but instead induced a switch from TNF-induced necroptosis to receptor-interacting kinase-1 (RIPK1) kinase-dependent apoptosis. In addition, although mitochondrial fission also occurs during TNF-induced necroptosis in L929 cells, we found that knockdown of phosphoglycerate mutase 5 (PGAM5) and dynamin 1 like protein (Drp1) did not markedly protect the cells from TNF-induced necroptosis. Depletion of Pink1, a reported interactor of both PGAM5 and Drp1, did not affect TNF-induced necroptosis. These results indicate that in these murine cells mitochondrial fission and Pink1 dependent processes, including Pink-Parkin dependent mitophagy, apparently do not promote necroptosis. Our data demonstrate that the core components of the necrosome (RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL) are crucial to induce TNF-dependent necroptosis both in human and in mouse cells, but the associated mechanisms may differ between the two species or cell types.     

24(S)-hydroxycholesterol induces neuronal cell death through necroptosis, a form of programmed necrosis

24(S)-Hydroxycholesterol (24S-OHC) produced by cholesterol 24-hydroxylase expressed mainly in neurons plays an important physiological role in the brain. Conversely, it has been reported that 24S-OHC possesses potent cytotoxicity. The molecular mechanisms of 24S-OHC-induced cell death have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, using human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and primary cortical neuronal cells derived from rat embryo, we characterized the form of cell death induced by 24S-OHC. SH-SY5Y cells treated with 24S-OHC exhibited neither fragmentation of the nucleus nor caspase activation, which are the typical characteristics of apoptosis. 24S-OHC-treated cells showed necrosis-like morphological changes but did not induce ATP depletion, one of the features of necrosis. When cells were treated with necrostatin-1, an inhibitor of receptor-interacting serine/threonine kinase 1 (RIPK1) required for necroptosis, 24S-OHC-induced cell death was significantly suppressed. The knockdown of RIPK1 by transfection of small interfering RNA of RIPK1 effectively attenuated 24S-OHC-induced cell death. It was found that neither SH-SY5Y cells nor primary cortical neuronal cells expressed caspase-8, which was regulated for RIPK1-dependent apoptosis. Collectively, these results suggest that 24S-OHC induces neuronal cell death by necroptosis, a form of programmed necrosis.     

Many stimuli pull the necrotic trigger, an overview

The lab of Jürg Tschopp was the first to report on the crucial role of receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) in caspase-independent cell death. Because of this pioneer finding, regulated necrosis and in particular RIPK1/RIPK3 kinase-mediated necrosis, referred to as necroptosis, has become an intensively studied form of regulated cell death. Although necrosis was identified initially as a backup cell death program when apoptosis is blocked, it is now recognized as a cellular defense mechanism against viral infections and as being critically involved in ischemia-reperfusion damage. The observation that RIPK3 ablation rescues embryonic lethality in mice deficient in caspase-8 or Fas-associated-protein-via-a-death-domain demonstrates the crucial role of this apoptotic platform in the negative control of necroptosis during development. Here, we review and discuss commonalities and differences of the increasing list of inducers of regulated necrosis ranging from cytokines, pathogen-associated molecular patterns, to several forms of physicochemical cellular stress. Since the discovery of the crucial role of RIPK1 and RIPK3 in necroptosis, these kinases have become potential therapeutic targets. The availability of new pharmacological inhibitors and transgenic models will allow us to further document the important role of this form of cell death in degenerative, inflammatory and infectious diseases.