Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios in bone collagen as indices of prehistoric dietary dependence on marine and terrestrial resources in southern California

The ratios of 15N to 14N and 13C to 12C tend to be higher in marine than in terrestrial organisms. The concentrations of these isotopes in human bone collagen consequently can be used to make inferences about the contribution of marine and terrestrial resources to prehistoric diets. The utility of studying 15N/14N and 13C/12C ratios in conjunction with each other is illustrated by our analysis of 40 human burials from archaeological sites in the Santa Barbara Channel area of southern California. The mean delta 13C and delta 15N values (in per mil) of collagen from these skeletons decrease progressively from the Channel Islands (delta 13C = -14.0, delta 15N = +16.3) to the mainland coast (delta 13C = -14.5, delta 15N = +14.9) to the interior (delta 13C = -17.2, delta 15N = +10.9). These data suggest that Indians living on the Channel Islands during the late prehistoric period were heavily dependent on marine resources. The inhabitants of the mainland interior, in contrast, had a diet composed largely of terrestrial foods. From their isotope ratios, it appears that the Indians who lived on the mainland coast consumed a mixed diet containing substantial quantities of both marine and terrestrial resources. Differences in 15N/14N and 13C/12C ratios of individuals from mainland sites dating from the early and late prehistoric periods show that the marine component of the diet increased substantially through time. These isotopic data are consistent with pathological, faunal, and artifactual evidence of increased marine resource exploitation during the late prehistoric period.     

Bioarchaeological evidence for trophy-taking in prehistoric central California

Fourteen adult burials in a large (N = 224) prehistoric central California cemetery (CA-SCL-674) lack forearm bones. Twelve of these otherwise well-articulated primary interments have distal humeri bearing cutmarks with a distribution like that seen in fur seals butchered by Native Californians. Most of the burials with missing forearms are young adult males, a demographic profile that differs significantly from the full sample. Three of these males show evidence of perimortem trauma in addition to forearm amputation. Drilled and polished human radii and ulnae were recovered from the CA-SCL-674 cemetery in archaeological contexts separate from burials with missing forearms. A warfare-related trophy-taking practice is strongly suggested by these bioarchaeological data. Based on these data, it seems likely that 20% (N = 10) or more of the adult males (N = 59) in this population were victims of violence. Evidence of perimortem violence was much less common among women, with only about 2% (N = 2) of adult females (N = 86) subjected to trophy-taking. Examination of museum collections produced further evidence for perimortem forearm amputation among the Native American inhabitants of this area during the transition between the Early and Middle periods. The emergence of more hierarchical social systems during this period may have fostered warfare-related trophy-taking as a symbolic tool for enhancing the power and prestige of individuals within competing social groups.     

Changes in osteoarthritis associated with the development of a maritime economy among southern California Indians

The severity of osteoarthritis was studied in human skeletal remains from archaeological sites in the Santa Barbara Channel area of southern California. These remains were analyzed to better understand changes in activity patterns associated with the economic shift from hunting and gathering to intensive fishing and craft specialization that occurred in this area. The joints of 967 burials from seven archaeological sites occupied between 3500 B.C. and the time of European contact were scored for osteoarthritis. These data show that the rate at which people developed osteoarthritis increased through time. This suggests that the adaptive shift toward more intensive exploitation of the marine environment resulted in an increase in the time people spent in strenuous physical activity. The increase in osteoarthritis affected males to a greater extent than females. One interpretation of this is that the work load of men increased with the economic importance of fishing.     

Odontometric profile of a prehistoric southeastern Florida population

This study analyzes and compares the dental size variation and sexual dimorphism of the Highland Beach Mound people, a late southeastern prehistoric aboriginal Florida population (ca. 800-1200 AD) with a somewhat earlier midwestern group (ca. 200-800 AD) and an Archaic sample (ca. 4160-2558 BC). The lengths and breadths of maxillary and mandibular permanent teeth of 99 individuals were measured, and crown surface areas were calculated for the molars. Results indicated that there was little sexual dimorphism. Only the mesiodistal dimensions of the upper P2 and lower C were significantly different at the P less than 0.05 level. In terms of dental size, what appears to be a chronologically based reduction in most points of comparison was seen in all three groups, with the exception of the molars, which were larger in the Highland Beach sample than in the earlier Schultz Mound.     

Task activity and anterior tooth grooving in prehistoric California indians.

Abraded grooves have been observed on the anterior teeth of all the adults in a small population of prehistoric California Indians. These dental effects show considerable variety, appearing on maxillary and mandibular teeth, on approximal and occulusal surfaces, and either isolated or bilaterally aligned. Although many of the grooves are indistinguishable from those reported for other prehistoric populations, their variety illustrates the limited applicability of etiological hypotheses previously proposed to account for such effects. It is suggested that the grooves represent traces of a task activity involving the pulling of fibrous materials across the teeth.     

Defective enamel histology of prehistoric teeth from illinois

Histological enamel defects have been used as indicators of childhood morbidity and nutritional inadequacy. However, the usefulness of these defects has been hampered by a lack of clear criteria for differentiating normal and defective enamel. This report demonstrates that the criteria of abnormal prism structure can accurately differentiate defective enamel (i.e., pathological bands) from normal enamel. In addition, pathological bands can be divided into three distinct subtypes: distorted structure bands, black spot pathological bands, and structureless pathological bands. It has been assumed that the patterning of pathological bands and enamel hypoplasia is the same for all populations. Comparisons between populations show that each population has its own unique pattern. It has also been assumed that striae of Retzius, pathological bands, and enamel hypoplasias represent three grades of severity of the same phenomenon. Correlations between these three features demonstrate instead that this patterning is possibly influenced by the morphology of the teeth.     

On the estimation of some demographic characteristics on a prehistoric population from the American Southwest

After a general discussion of some of the limitations and assumptions inherent in paleodemographic studies, a method for the estimation of average life expectancy when only deaths by age are known is described and applied to the remains from Point of Pines, a prehistoric Western Pueblo population from the American Southwest. It was found that the method was not applicable to these data in its entirety, since there were considerable differences in mortality shapes between this prehistoric group and those summarized in the U. N. Model Life Tables. It is suggested that a range of average life expectancy can be calculated when the intrinsic rates of natural increase vary, and these are given for the Point of Pines data.     

Histological enamel indicator of childhood stress in prehistoric skeletal samples.

Although previous paleopathological studies have used disturbances in enamel formation as indicators of childhood stress, the full potential of this technique has not been realized. This paper presents a test case which demonstrates that the frequency of disturbed enamel formation (i.e., Wilson bands) is associated with other stress indicators (i.e., probability of dying and infectious lesions) in three prehistoric skeletal samples representing the Middle Woodland (10.3%), Mississippian Acculturated Late Woodland (21.4%), and the Middle Mississippian (40.0%). Additionally, the mean ages at death of individuals with at least one Wilson band are lower than those without bands.These results suggest that Wilson bands are an indicator of the relative proportion of individuals who are high susceptibles in prehistoric populations. The data also corroborate the hypothesis that the adoption of maize agriculture in the prehistoric American Midwest is associated with increased stress.     

Trophy‐taking and dismemberment as warfare strategies in prehistoric central California

We document evidence for trophy‐taking and dismemberment with a new bioarchaeological database featuring 13,453 individuals from prehistoric central California sites. Our study reveals 76 individuals with perimortem removal of body parts consistent with trophy‐taking or dismemberment; nine of these individuals display multiple types of trophy‐taking and dismemberment for a total of 87 cases. Cases span almost 5,000 years, from the Early Period (3000–500 BC) to the Late Period (AD 900–1700). Collectively, these individuals share traits that distinguish them from the rest of the population: a high frequency of young adult males, an increased frequency of associated trauma, and a tendency towards multiple burials and haphazard burial positions. Eight examples of human bone artifacts were also found that appear related to trophy‐taking. These characteristics suggest that trophy‐taking and dismemberment were an important part of the warfare practices of central Californian tribes. Temporally, the two practices soared in the Early/Middle Transition Period (500–200 BC), which may have reflected a more complex sociopolitical system that encouraged the use of trophies for status acquisition, as well as the migration of outside groups that resulted in intensified conflict. Overall, trophy‐taking and dismemberment appear to have been the product of the social geography of prehistoric central California, where culturally differentiated tribes lived in close proximity to their enemies. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Estimating prehistoric American Indian population size for united states area: Implications of the nineteenth century population decline and nadir

Implications of a revised United States American Indian nadir population and the pattern of decline leading to it are examined. Substituting the new nadir for that used by Dobyns (1966) lowers by several million his estimates of Indian population for the United States (and Canada) area. These estimates then become more compatible with ones currently being suggested by other scholars. The nineteenth century decline leading to this nadir is found to be remarkably linear. Assuming linearity in decline from initial European contact through the eighteenth century, an aboriginal population estimate of 1,845,183 for the United States area may be extrapolated, along with estimates for intervening years. The nineteenth century decline is then graphed with the data extrapolated to 1492. The resulting pattern of population decline is quite different from the ones suggested by Mooney (1928) and Dobyns (1966).     

Prevalence of mastoid infection in prehistoric Arizona Indians

In view of the reported high prevalence of otitis media and mastoiditis in the present-day Indian inhabitants of Arizona, when an opportunity arose to examine the skulls of prehistoric Indians in the collection of the Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, it was thought that determining the prevalence of mastoiditis in them might be helpful in the treatment and prevention of mastoid infections in the present-day population. Our findings are compared with those of two other studies of mastoiditis in prehistoric Indians in another area of the United States.     

Porotic hyperostosis in a marine-dependent California Indian population

A maize-based iron- and protein-deficient diet is commonly cited as the most important cause of porotic hyperostosis among American Indian agriculturalists. An alternative to this maize dependence hypothesis is suggested by the analysis of 432 crania from the nonagricultural, fish-dependent population of the Channel Island area of southern California. Cribra orbitalia, a form of porotic hyperostosis associated with iron deficiency anemia, is just as common among these fisherpeople, whose diet was rich in iron and essential amino acids, as it is among maize-dependent agriculturalists. Northern Channel Island crania have much more cribra orbitalia than those from the California mainland. The highest incidence is on San Miguel, a small geographically isolated island with a shortage of fresh water and terrestrial resources. The Indians who lived on Santa Cruz, the largest of the northern Channel Islands with the greatest diversity of terrestrial plants and animals, have less cribra orbitalia than those who lived on Santa Rosa or San Miguel Island. This geographical distribution appears to be explained by island-mainland and interisland differences in water contamination, exposure to fish-borne parasites, and nutritional adequacy of the diet. The prevalence of porotic hyperostosis in a population with a heavy dietary dependence on marine resources shows that among prehistoric American Indians, this condition is not always associated with an iron- and protein-deficient diet of cultigens. It seems likely that high nutrient losses associated with diarrheal disease are often more significant in the etiology of porotic hyperostosis than a low dietary intake of essential nutrients.     

Population studies on southwestern Indian tribes. V. Tooth morphology as an indicator of biological distance

The value of phylogenetic comparisons between populations based on tooth morphology depends on a knowledge of the extent to which the observed morphological variation is genetic in origin. This knowledge can be derived unequivocally only from the analysis of family data. However, in the absence of such knowledge the ability of tooth morphology to distinguish biological differences can be evaluated directly by testing its discriminating power in practice on populations between which the degrees of genetic difference are already known. The results of such an evaluation show that different degrees of subjectivity of scoring are associated with different characters, but that moderately good correspondence between known genetic differences and differences based on tooth morphology can be achieved when characters showing the least subjectivity of scoring are used.     

Osteoporotic bone loss in two prehistoric Indian populations

To examine the demineralizing effects of the ageing process on the human skeleton, a photon absorptiometric method was employed which measured bone mineral mass. Rates and amounts of demineralization were compared in two prehistoric Indian populations: Indian Knoll (dated between 2500 and 2000 B.C. ) of the Archaic Period and Pete Klunk (dated between 50 B.C. and 250 A.D. ) of the Middle Woodland or Woodland or Hopewell Period. The former was exclusively a hunting and gathering group while the latter supplemented its hunting and gathering with part-time agriculture. Archaeological and osteometric data suggest that Hopewell had a more nutritionally adequate and reliable diet than Indian Knoll. By regression slope analysis it was shown that, as in modern populations, trabecular and female rates of loss are greater, respectively, than cortical or male rates. Hopewell males and females lost bone at a faster rate than Indian Knoll males and females. When amounts of demineralization in these two groups were compared to that of a contemporary group, the Indian Knoll and contemporary populations were found to lose the same amount while Hopewell lost the greatest amount. It is suggested from these comparisons that dietary sufficency does not contribute significantly to skeletal maintenance during ageing.     

Ancient mitochondrial DNA evidence for prehistoric population movement: the Numic expansion

The mitochondrial DNA of modern Native Americans has been shown to fall into one of at least five haplogroups (A, B, C, D, or X) whose frequencies differ among tribal groups. The frequencies of these five haplogroups in a collection of ancient individuals from Western Nevada dating to between approximately 350-9,200 years BP were determined. These data were used to test the hypothesis, supported by archaeological and linguistic data, that the current inhabitants of the Great Basin, the Numic speakers, are recent immigrants into the area who replaced the previous non-Numic inhabitants. The frequency distributions of haplogroups in the ancient and modern Native Americans differed significantly, suggesting that there is a genetic discontinuity between the ancient inhabitants and the modern Numic speakers, providing further support for the Recent Numic Expansion hypothesis. The distribution of mitochondrial haplogroups of the ancient inhabitants of the Great Basin is most similar to those of some of the modern Native American inhabitants of California.     

Paleopathology in an Iroquoian ossuary, with special reference to tuberculosis

Pathological skeletal remains from the Uxbridge Ossuary (1490 +/- 80 A.D., N = 457) are classified into four broad categories: trauma, congenital disability, tumor, and infection. Traumatic injuries are relatively common (fractures in 5-9.4% of total), considering the date and subsistence pattern of the population. Congenital disabilities and tumors are rare, affecting approximately 2% of the population. Nonspecific periosteitis and osteitis affect 5% of the sample. By far the most common pathological skeletal changes are lytic lesions leading to cavitation of cancellous bone, especially in the lower vertebral and sacro-iliac regions. It is argued that the changes seen and their distribution are most consistent with a diagnosis of tuberculosis. Applying clinical observations regarding bone involvement, it is estimated that a minimum of 26 skeletons were affected. This in turn indicates a very high population tuberculosis incidence. The Uxbridge sample is neither the only nor the earliest Iroquoian ossuary to display apparent tuberculosis (Hartney 1981). The common presence of this disease in some communities and its low incidence in others are discussed in the context of the epidemic wave phenomenon. There is strong evidence for warfare at Uxbridge, and this warfare may have produced crowding, poor hygiene and diet, such that the disease could flourish.     

Cranial variation in prehistoric human skeletal remains from the Marianas

Nonmetric cranial variation and facial flatness of the Pacific and circum-Pacific populations are investigated. The peoples of the Marianas, eastern Polynesia and Hawaii form a cluster and show affinities in terms of nonmetric cranial variation with the Southeast and East Asians rather than with the Jomon-Ainu, a view which is widely supported by others. Facial flatness analysis also indicates that Polynesians have different patterns of facial prominence as compared with the Jomon-Ainu. These results increase the difficulty of accepting the Jomon-Pacific cluster proposed by Brace and his coworkers. Although genetic and nonmetric cranial variation reveal relatively close relationships, the Mariana skeletons are markedly different in facial flatness and limb bone morphology from those of Polynesians. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:399–410, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Craniometric variation and population history of the prehistoric Tewa

Although the population history and social organization of the prehistoric Pueblo Indians of the American Southwest have received attention in the archaeological literature, little research on this topic has been conducted by biological anthropologists. Here, we examine postmarital residence at two ancestral Tewa Indian pueblos located in north-central New Mexico using determinant ratio analysis. In addition, we examine genetic relationships among pueblos, as well as levels of within-pueblo heterogeneity due to gene flow from extraregional sources, or regional aggregation. Results from determinant ratio analysis indicate greater within-pueblo male variation, consistent with matrilocal residence for at least one Tewa pueblo. Less than expected heterogeneity at two pueblos suggests that endogamy might have been practiced among some prehistoric Tewa pueblos. Gene flow from extraregional sources is indicated for two different pueblos by greater than expected within-group heterogeneity. Distance matrix correlation analyses indicate little if any relationship between phenotypic and geographic distances, suggesting that geography was not the primary basis of gene flow or mate exchange. The weak relationship between phenotypic and geographic distances may be the combined effects of endogamy at some pueblos, nonrandom extraregional gene flow or migration at other pueblos, and limited nonproximity-dependent regional gene flow or migration among pueblos, possibly structured on ritual exchange networks based on medicine society affiliation.     

Brief communication: Additional cases of maxillary canine‐first premolar transposition in several prehistoric skeletal assemblages from the Santa Barbara Channel Islands of California

This article identifies and discusses seven new cases of complete maxillary canine‐premolar transposition in ancient populations from the Santa Barbara Channel region of California. A high frequency of this tooth transposition has been previously documented within a single prehistoric cemetery on one of the Channel Islands. A total of 966 crania representing 30 local sites and about 7,000 years of human occupation were examined, revealing an abnormally high prevalence of this transposition trait among islanders during the Early period of southern California prehistory (～5500–600 B.C.). One of the affected crania is from a cemetery more than 7,000‐years‐old and constitutes the earliest case of tooth transposition in humans so far reported. The results are consistent with findings by other studies that have indicated inbreeding among the early Channel Islands groups. Together with the normal transposition rates among mainland populations, the decreasing prevalence of maxillary canine‐first premolar transposition among island populations across the Holocene suggests that inbreeding on the northern Channel Islands had all but ceased by the end of the first millennium B.C., most likely as a result of increased cross‐channel migration and interaction. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:155–160, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Transverse lines in long bones of prehistoric California Indians

Radiopaque transverse lines (lines of arrested growth, Harris's lines) were counted on X-rays of the distal end of 102 adult femurs from prehistoric California Indian populations representing three archaeological Horizons. The sample from Early Horizon has the highest frequency of lines, the Middle Horizon the next, and the sample from Late Horizon has the lowest frequency of lines. These differences are statistically significant. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Indians improved and broadened their subsistence economy from Early to Late Horizon. It is concluded that the differences in the frequency of lines among the three California Indian populations probably are associated with differences in morbidity and/or nutritional status of the people. If this hypothesis is correct, then frequency distribution of transverse lines represents a valuable tool for the paleopathologist and the archaeologist.