Should I stay or should I go? Modelling dispersal strategies in saproxylic insects based on pheromone capture and radio telemetry: a case study on the threatened hermit beetle <Emphasis Type="Italic">Osmoderma eremita</Emphasis>

To predict how organisms cope with habitat fragmentation we must understand their dispersal biology, which can be notoriously difficult. We used a novel, multi-pronged approach to study dispersal strategies in the endangered saproxylic hermit beetle Osmoderma eremita, exploiting its pheromone system to intercept high numbers of dispersing individuals, which is not possible with other methods. Mark-release-recapture, using unbaited pitfall traps inside oak hollows and pheromone-baited funnel traps suspended from tree branches, was combined with radio telemetry (in females only) to record displacements. Dispersal, modelled as a probability distribution of net displacement, did not differ significantly between sexes (males versus females recaptured), observation methods (females recaptured versus radio-tracked), or sites of first capture (pitfall trap in tree versus pheromone trap – distance from original dispersal point unknown). A model including all observed individuals yielded a mean displacement of 82 m with 1% dispersing > 1 km. Differences in body length were small between individuals captured in pitfall versus pheromone traps, indicating that dispersal is rarely a condition-dependent response in O. eremita. Individuals captured in pheromone traps were consistently lighter, indicating that most dispersal events occur relatively late in life, which agrees with trap catch data. In addition, most (79%) females captured in pheromone traps were mated, showing that females typically mate before leaving their natal tree. Our data show that integrating odour attractants into insect conservation biology provides a means to target dispersing individuals and could greatly improve our knowledge of dispersal biology in threatened species.     

Efficacy of 1,4-diaminobutane (putrescine) in a food-based synthetic attractant for capture of Mediterranean and Mexican fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Field trials were conducted in Guatemala to evaluate the importance of 1,4 diaminobutane (putrescine) in traps baited with ammonium acetate, trimethylamine, and putrescine. For the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), there were no differences in percentage of females captured in coffee and citrus or in percentage of males captured in citrus in traps with ammonium acetate and trimethylamine lures (females in coffee, 26.4 +/- 6.27%; females in citrus, 35.7 +/- 5.35%; males in citrus, 37.7 +/- 7.48%) versus ammonium acetate, trimethylamine, and putrescine lures (females in coffee, 36.6 +/- 9.64%; females in citrus, 41.1 +/- 5.18%; males in citrus, 37.1 +/- 6.09%). Percentage of males captured in coffee was reduced significantly when putrescine was not used with the ammonium acetate and trimethylamine (39.9 +/- 4.34 versus 31.6 +/- 5.29%). Lower percentages were captured in traps baited with ammonium acetate and putrescine, and the lowest percentages were captured in traps baited with putrescine and trimethylamine. When population level as indicated by capture in traps baited with ammonium acetate, trimethylamine, and putrescine was considered, a higher percentage of C. capitata males were captured in traps baited with all three components when one or more flies per trap per day were captured in coffee, and a higher percentage of females were captured when less than one fly per trap per day was captured in citrus. Percentage of the Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew), captured was significantly higher in traps baited with ammonium acetate and putrescine and significantly lower in traps baited putrescine and trimethylamine than in all other treatments. Results indicate that putrescine may be deleted when monitoring established populations of C. capitata but should be used in traps used to monitor A. ludens or to detect new infestations of C. capitata.     

Olive fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) populations in relation to region, trap type, season, and availability of fruit

Olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Gmelin), was monitored with adult captures by season and trap type, and was related to fruit volume and nonharvested fruit to elucidate the occurrence of the newly introduced pest in California. The highest numbers of adults captured in ChamP traps in olive trees, Olea europaea, were in October in an inland valley location, and in September in a coastal location. Comparisons of trap types showed that the number of olive fruit fly adults captured in Pherocon AM traps in a commercial orchard was significantly greater than in ChamP traps. A significantly greater number of females were captured in Pherocon AM traps with bait packets and pheromone lures than traps with pheromone lures alone, while a significantly greater number of adults and males were captured in traps with pheromone lures alone. Significantly more adults were captured in ChamP traps with bait packets and pheromone lures versus traps with bait packets alone. Fruit volume increased by four times from mid-June to mid-November. Olive fruit fly was found to oviposit on small olive fruit <1 cm3 shortly after fruit set, the maximum number of ovipositional sites per fruit occurred in October, and the greatest number of pupae and adults were reared from fruit collected in September and October. The highest numbers of pupae were collected from nonharvested fruit in March when high numbers of adults were captured in the same orchard.     

The effects of season,pretraining, and scent on the efficiency of traps for capturing recruited honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

A portable trap was designed to capture honey bees recruited to the field by dancers. An infrared phototransistor placed in the entrance tunnel of the trap sensed an incoming bee and turned on a talking clock, which in turn activated a voice-actuated audio tape recorder that recorded the time. We tested the effectiveness of traps for capturing bees recruited by four dancer bees (1) during two seasons when local flower densities differed, (2) with or without a group of bees pretrained to enter traps for food, and (3) when the scent used in traps and at the dancers' feeding station was changed just prior to recruitment trials or was not changed. One trap was put out at each of four distances (50, 100, 150, and 200 m) from the hive, while dancers fed on concentrated sucrose at the feeding station located at 150 m in the same direction. Recruited bees that approached the traps but did not enter were counted by observers. More bees were recruited and captured in traps when the local flora was sparse (fall) than when flowers were abundant (summer), when bees were pretrained versus not pretrained, and when the scent was not changed just prior to recruitment trials versus changed. The distributions of number of bees counted at the four distances at scented recruit stations and trapped were similar only when bees were pretrained and the scent was not changed during recruitment trials. However, the highest proportion of bees trapped in a trial at 150 m (distance to dancers' feeding station) was when bees were pretrained and the scent was changed.     

Early detection and population monitoring of Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) in a mixed-fruit orchard in northern Greece

Population monitoring of the Mediterranean fruit fly,Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), was studied in 1998 in a mixed-fruit orchard in northern Greece, using International Pheromone McPhail traps (IPMT) baited with the female targeted attractants ammonium acetate, putrescine, and trimethylamine, and Jackson traps baited with the male specific parapheromone trimedlure. Special emphasis was placed on detecting the low initial adult population resulting from surviving overwintering larvae as early as possible in the spring and early summer. Traps were suspended on various host trees, using trap grid densities of either 15 or 1.5 traps per hectare. The first adults detected were females captured on 24 June in IPMT traps suspended on apricot trees, which are among the earliest maturing hosts in the area. From the end of July, the most effective trap was the IPMT trap placed on peaches, which followed apricots in the fruit ripening sequence. IPMT traps captured predominately females (approximately 80% of the total captures) and by far outperformed Jackson traps in early detection (the first males in Jackson traps were captured in August) as well as in total captures until mid-October. After mid-October, however, more flies were captured in Jackson traps. Comparing the performance of two trap grid densities on apple trees (the common host in the two grids), we found that in the high-density trap grid the first adults were detected 1 wk earlier than in the low-density trap grid. Our findings for this locality suggest that trap type and plant species on which traps are suspended are of key importance in early detection and population monitoring of C. capitata.     

Mating attraction by Stenotus rubrovittatus (Heteroptera: Miridae) females and its relationship to ovarian development

Stenotus rubrovittatus (Matsumura) (Heteroptera: Miridae) causes brown or black marks on rice, Oryza sativa L., grains (pecky rice), and it is becoming of increasing importance in Japan. Attractiveness of adult females or males of S. rubrovittatus to conspecific individuals was examined in the field in 2003 and 2004. Unmated female-baited traps captured significantly more males than did the unmated male-baited traps. However, the numbers of females captured by female- or male-baited traps were low, and they were not significantly different from the numbers caught by the control traps. No nymphs were captured by any traps. In 2004, we examined the effects of age and mating experience on female attraction ability with the goal of understanding the role of reproductive development in the observed behavior. The daily number of males captured by young unmated female (3-d-old)-baited traps increased from the first day until the fourth day of experiments, and then capture started to decrease. The peak in the number of captured males corresponded to the preoviposition period. When we observed ovarian development of S. rubrovittatus females under 25 degrees C and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h, we found that vitellogenesis had already started in approximately 30-50% of 1-d-old individuals. By the fifth day after emergence, 50-70% of individuals had mature eggs. These results indicated that the attractiveness of females is the strongest when egg laying becomes possible. Therefore, S. rubrovittatus females attract males selectively for mating, and it is probable that females use a sex pheromone for the attraction.     

Evaluation of traps used to monitor southern pine beetle aerial populations and sex ratios

1 Various kinds of traps have been employed to monitor and forecast population trends of the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann; Coleoptera: Scolytidae), but their accuracy in assessing pine‐beetle abundance and sex ratio in the field has not been evaluated directly. 2 In this study, we used fluorescent powder to mark pine beetles emerging from six isolated infestations. We then compared estimates of total abundances and proportions of males emerging from within each infestation to the estimates from three types of traps: passive sticky traps (2, 5, 10 and 20 m away from the source of beetles), multi‐funnel traps baited with pine beetle attractants (100 m away) and pine trees baited with attractants (also 100 m away). 3 We found that the proportion of males captured in traps was significantly affected by the type of trap used. 4 Within an infestation, equal proportions of males and females were marked (0.53 ± 0.02 males; mean ± SE), but the proportions captured in trap trees and passive traps were more female biased (0.42 ± 0.03 and 0.46 ± 0.01 males, respectively). On the other hand, funnel traps provided an estimate of the proportion of males that was nearly identical to the proportion from within infestations (0.51 ± 0.03). 5 Numbers of marked beetles captured in traps were uncorrelated with the numbers of marked beetles emerging from the focal infestations. This suggests that traps positioned around an infestation may not be effective at estimating relative abundances of beetles within the infestation.     

Orientation of Culex mosquitoes to carbon dioxide-baited traps: flight manoeuvres and trapping efficiency

Females of Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Culex tarsalis Coquillet (Diptera: Culicidae) in the host-seeking stage were released and video recorded in three dimensions in a large field wind tunnel as they flew to four kinds of CO2-baited mosquito traps. The trapping efficiency (number of mosquitoes approaching compared to the number caught) was determined for each trap type. The Encephalitis Virus Surveillance (EVS), Mosquito Magnet Freedom (MMF) and Mosquito Magnet Liberty (MML) traps captured only 13-16% of approaching Cx. quinquefasciatus females, whereas the Mosquito Magnet-X (MMX) trap captured 58%. Similar results were obtained for Cx. tarsalis. Orientation behaviour and flight parameters of mosquitoes approaching the four traps were compared. Mosquitoes spent the most time orienting to the EVS trap. Flight speed decreased as mosquitoes entered the vicinity of each trap and a large portion of their time was spent within 30 cm downwind of the traps. Flights became highly tortuous downwind of the poorly performing traps and just upwind of the MMX trap. Differences between traps and possible explanations for the superior performance of the MMX trap are considered.     

Evidence for female-biased juvenile dispersal in corophiid amphipods from a New Zealand estuary

This study examined the distribution and dispersal of corophiid amphipods (Paracorophium spp.) in a temperate New Zealand estuary. Individuals in the sediment (resident population) and those caught in bed-load (local-scale movement) and suspended-load (larger-scale movement) were counted, measured, and sexed, during two tidal cycles at 4-6 week intervals spanning 13 months. Gravid females and juveniles were present in the resident population on all sample dates suggesting near continuous reproduction. Juveniles (< 2.2 mm body length) accounted for 49.8% of individuals in the sediment, compared to 65.4% of those caught in the bed-load and suspended-load traps. For the majority of sample dates, there was a net export of juveniles from the estuary. The total number of juveniles captured in suspended-load traps was significantly greater during the ebb tide relative to the flood tide (n = 541 versus 256), whereas no significant differences were found for adults. Similarly, numbers in the bed-load traps were significantly greater for juveniles during the ebb versus the flood tide (n = 900 versus 484), and also for adult females (n = 180 versus 86). Juvenile sex ratios were female biased in the sediment (9.8:1) and in suspended-load traps (7.6:1) and both were significantly more female-biased than that recorded for juveniles caught in bed-load traps (5.8:1). By contrast, there was a significantly lower proportion of adult females to adult males found in bed-load traps (1.7:1) and in suspended-load traps (0.98:1) compared to the resident population in the sediment (3.6:1). The mean size of juvenile females caught on a flood tide was significantly larger compared to those on the ebb tide, yet juvenile males were not significantly different, suggesting that smaller females were not returning on the flood tide. We suggest that female-biased juvenile dispersal for estuarine Paracorophium spp. lowers the risk of inbreeding and reduces competition. This may have evolved in response to a polygamous breeding system with little or no social organisation where a female produces more female offspring to maximise her inclusive fitness.     

Pest phenology and evaluation of traps and pheromone lures for monitoring flight activity of obliquebanded leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Minnesota apple orchards

The efficacy of two trap designs (Pherocon 1C "wing" trap versus Pherocon VI "delta" trap) and two pheromone blends for monitoring obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris), was evaluated in Minnesota apple orchards during the 2001 and 2002 field seasons. Two distinct flight periods of C. rosaceana were recorded yearly in Minnesota. Overwintered C. rosaceana larvae resumed activity in the spring at approximately 60 degree-days (DD) base 10 degrees C, whereas adult emergence began approximately 275 DD base 10 degrees C. To determine the optimal pheromone blend for monitoring C. rosaceana in Minnesota, traps were baited with either a three-component pheromone blend (Z11-14:Ac, E11-14:Ac, and Z11-14:OH) produced by females in eastern North America, or a four-component blend (Z11-14:Ac, E11-14:Ac, Z11-14:OH, and Z11-14:Al) commonly produced by females in western North America. Of the four pheromone-baited traps evaluated, delta traps baited with the four-component western pheromone lure captured the highest number of C. rosaceana males, followed by wing traps baited with western lure. Male C. rosaceana were less attracted to traps containing the three-component eastern lure, and both lure types seemed to be considerably selective against sympatric redbanded leafroller, Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker). These results suggest that the pheromonal response of the predominant endemic population of C. rosaceana in Minnesota is similar to the response of the pest in many parts of western North America. The delta trap baited with western pheromone lure of C. rosaceana is recommended for monitoring the pest in Minnesota, and the results are discussed in relation to the development of effective management strategies against this important pest of apple.     

Design and evaluation of traps for Idiarthron subquadratum (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) with farmer participation in coffee plantations in Chiapas, Mexico

Three new types of traps designed and made by farmers were evaluated for capture of Idiarthron subquadratum Saussure & Pictet. Bag, sack, and fabric traps were compared with previously used bamboo internode traps. A participatory methodology was used involving farmer interviews and workshops to design and make the traps. Farmer participation was useful for obtaining information on perceptions, knowledge, and control activities of I. subquadratum. The bag trap captured a greater number of individuals than the bamboo and fabric traps, but its captures were similar to those of sack trap; captures were similar in bamboo, sack, and fabric traps. When captured individuals were analyzed by stage of development, no significant differences between types of traps were detected for captured adults. The number of individuals captured in the traps showed a similar trend to that counted in nocturnal sampling. A significant positive relationship was detected between numbers of adults captured and the damage of leaves and fruits. Taylor's Power Law indicates that I. subquadratum individuals were more abundant in some traps than in others. With densities greater than five individuals per trap, a smaller number of bag traps was required to estimate the same population compared with the other types of traps. Sampling procedure that used the bag traps had the lowest cost. This study shows that resource-poor coffee, Coffea arabica L., farmers had accumulated knowledge of I. subquadratum based on unpublished data and experience and that they were capable of applying this knowledge to develop an economical and more suitable technology for their conditions.     

Effect of trap type, trap color, trapping location, and pheromone dispenser on captures of male Palpita unionalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Field studies were conducted to evaluate the influence of trap design, trapping location, type of pheromone dispenser, and trap color on the capture of Palpita unionalis (Hübner) males, in olive groves. The experiments were carried out in two regions, Alexandria (northern Greece) and Oropos (central Greece), where olives are cultivated. In both regions, the majority of the males (> 70% of the total) were caught from late autumn to early winter, whereas < 1% was caught during July and August. Among the trap types used, the Funnel was significantly more attractive than Delta, Pherocon 1C, and Pherocon II traps. More males were caught in traps placed at the periphery of the groves than those placed in the center. Among the four colored traps tested, white traps were the most effective. However, a significant difference in trap catches was found between white and brown traps. Traps baited with red rubber septa captured more males than those baited with the white one. The use of these parameters in monitoring and managing P. unionalis is discussed.     

Activities and physiological states of male and female Tabanus sackeni

Male and female Tabanus sackeni Fairchild (Diptera: Tabanidae) were collected on a road, dipping at pools of water on a road, and at uv-light traps; females were also caught in Malaise traps. Most males at uv-light traps were collected just before sunrise. Most females at uv-light traps were collected in the evening and most had recently taken a bloodmeal. Malaise-trapped females showed a distinct crepuscular peak of host-seeking activity. Crop volumes were variable in these host-seeking females; many had large crops. Crop volumes were small in individuals of both sexes collected dipping or on the road. Many dipping females were gravid. By examining how physiological states and the behaviour of individuals changed according to trap type, we are able to make inferences about the timing and importance of a number of unobserved activities. A link between uptake of water and sugar feeding was apparent and we postulate that mating takes place in the early morning, just before sunrise.     

The use of sex pheromones for the control of invasive populations of the crayfish Procambarus clarkii: a field study

The crayfish Procambarus clarkii is a paradigmatic example of aquatic invasive species. Native to north-eastern Mexico and south-central USA, it has today reached a worldwide distribution. Several attempts have been made to mitigate its impacts but none was successful. In this study, we have investigated in the field whether sex pheromones may be used to control invasive populations of this species. Along two canals of the study area (“Padule di Fucecchio”, Central Italy, a wetland of conservation concern), in the summer 2006, we installed 18 traps for each of four types, i.e., (1) empty traps as control, and traps containing (2) sexually receptive males, (3) sexually receptive females, and (4) food. The number, sex, and size of the crayfish captured by each trap in 2 days were recorded and compared among types. The results confirm that males are attracted by the females’ sex pheromones: the sex ratio of the crayfish captured by the traps containing females was significantly biased towards males. However, when the overall number of the captured crayfish was compared among types of trap, food appeared to be the most attractive bait. The method could be improved using purified and concentrated sex pheromone instead of live animals. The use of pheromones has not been successfully applied to control crustacean decapod invaders so far, and a multidisciplinary approach is needed to face the problem.     

Sex ratios and Ophryocystis elektroscirrha infection levels of Danaus plexippus during spring migration through Oklahoma,USA

Monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus L. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), have a multiple brood migration in the spring as they move between their overwintering grounds and summer breeding grounds. In Oklahoma, USA, monarchs produce at least one generation in the spring, which develops and continues the northward migration, leaving Oklahoma without a breeding population during the hot summer months. Female monarchs leave the overwintering grounds prior to males, but it is not clear whether females re‐colonize areas along the migration route prior to, or at the same time as males. Male‐to‐female ratios are 1:1 at emergence, but studies have identified a male‐biased sex ratio in the field. Both males and females are susceptible to infection by the obligate protozoan parasite, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha McLaughlin & Myers (OE), which reduces flight abilities and life spans of infected individuals. We examine sex ratios during the spring migration through Oklahoma and whether sex ratios or OE infection estimates vary with capture technique (active or passive). Our data suggest populations are male‐biased during the 1st week of spring migration in Oklahoma, but shift to female‐biased by the 3rd week in both cool and warm springs. Therefore, males may leave southern areas prior to females or migrate longer distances per day. Active sampling (i.e., netting) did not bias sex compared to passive sampling (i.e., sticky traps). Significantly fewer OE‐carrying monarchs (with two or more spores) were captured via netting than by sticky traps which may be caused by sticky trap glue affecting tape sampling effectiveness, but there was no difference in the number of heavily infected individuals (more than 100 spores). Therefore, data from netted monarchs may underestimate OE infection rates within populations.     

Studies on the effectiveness of coroplast sticky traps for sampling stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae), including a comparison to Alsynite

Stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), are a blood-feeding pest of cattle worldwide. A new trapping material, Coroplast, was compared with Alsynite sticky traps based on the number, sex, and parity of stable flies caught. Coroplast sticky traps caught more stable flies than Alsynite (trap catches of 2384 versus 753 on 15 traps), with this increase attributed to catching more males (1531 versus 532) and nulliparous females (817 versus 175); parous catches were similar (36 versus 46). The spectral reflectance of Alsynite and Coroplast sticky traps is reported. We also examine Coroplast traps in detail with respect to trap color. Although clean sheets of Alsynite had a higher solar reflectance than Coroplast (90 versus 82% at 450 nm), Coroplast with debris had a higher reflectance than debris-covered Alsynite (62 versus 30% at 450 nm). White Coroplast was most effective, followed by closely by gray. Black and blue were the least effective trapping colors.     

Field evaluation of Medfly (Dipt., Tephritidae) female attractants in a Mediterranean agrosystem (Balearic Islands, Spain)

Field evaluation of female-targeted trapping systems for the Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata (Wied.) was carried out in a Citrus orchard in Majorca (Spain). Traps and lures included: IPMT and Tephri traps, both baited with a three-component food-based synthetic attractant 3FA (composed of putrescine, ammonium acetate and Trimethylamine) as well as IPMT-baited with Nu-Lure, and Delta traps baited with Trimedlure. The 3FA food-based synthetic attractant was set up either wet (containing water) or dry (without water) in IPMT and Tephri traps. Two experiments were conducted, the first during autumn/winter conditions and high Medfly population levels, and the second during spring conditions and low population levels. The results obtained show that the 3FA was very effective at capturing females at high and low population levels. In the first experiment the best performance was shown by the Tephri trap baited with 3FA in combination with water, and in the second the best was also the Tephri trap but with dry treatment. The high number of non-targeted insects captured by the first treatment together with servicing difficulties would indicate that the 3FA/dry-baited Tephri trap is the best choice in the area of the study. On the other hand the 3FA captured a percentage of mated females equivalent to those obtained with Nu-Lure. The Trimedlure proved to be an adequate tool to detect the earliest Medfly males in increasing spring population. The implications and advantages of using the 3FA female attractants in sterile insect technique programmes and mass trapping approaches, are discussed.     

Studies on the effects of bait and sampling intensity on trapping and estimating Wood mice, Apodemus sylvaticus

The effects of baiting a Longworth trap with whole oats and the density of traps on an area, or sampling intensity, on trapping and estimating Wood mice were studied on two neighbouring woodland plots in November 1971. Standard capture-mark-recapture (CMR) methods were used for two weeks followed by five nights of removal trapping.
The presence of bait significantly increased the likelihood of capturing marked and unmarked animals. By increasing the sampling intensity a greater proportion of the population was sampled, although the number of animals captured per trap night decreased. These results have been related to the "effective" number of traps on an area.
Observations on population structure, weather, movement and capturing marked and unmarked animals have been made. CMR population estimates closely resembled the cumulative number of individuals captured in each study and were for the main part lower than the estimates from the removal trapping carried out at the end of the studies.     

An effective strategy for trapping Douglas-fir beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae (Col., Scolytidae) using combinations of unbaited and pheromone baited funnel traps

Experiments were conducted to confirm and quantify earlier observations that unbaited funnel traps in conjunction with pheromone baited funnel traps may substantially increase trap catches of Douglas-fir beetles, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae . In 12 replicates of one of these experiments during 1998 and 1999, the catches of a single baited control trap were compared to those of a set of four traps where the central trap was baited and a ring of three traps, 1 m from the central trap arranged in a star configuration, were unbaited. In the second experiment conducted during 1999, a ring of three unbaited traps was placed at 2 m and a second at 5 m from the central baited trap. Statistically robust results demonstrated clearly that the configuration of one central baited trap plus three unbaited satellite traps collected twice as many beetles on average over the season compared to the baited control trap. Addition of a second ring of unbaited traps increased collections by only about 20%, but this experiment indicated that trap catches dropped off exponentially with distance from the centre. The number of beetles caught in the baited traps was essentially the same in all 3 arrangements, suggesting that the additional unbaited traps captured beetles that otherwise may not have been captured.     

The influence of trap type on evaluating population structure of the semifossorial and social rodent <Emphasis Type="Italic">Octodon degus</Emphasis>

Trap type may influence captures of individuals in different age-sex categories in small mammal studies, resulting in biased population and demographic information. We deployed 4 live trap types at burrow systems of the rodent, Octodon degus Molina, 1782, in central Chile to determine trap efficacy in capturing individuals of 6 demographic categories. We captured 2672 individuals in 17 709 trap days (15.1% trapping success). Tomahawks were the most efficient trap capturing half of individuals during both years, followed by mesh Sherman traps, large Sherman traps, and medium Sherman traps in 2005. All trap types equally sampled sexes. Large and medium Sherman traps provided similar demographic structure, where half of the individuals captured were pups; Tomahawk traps sampled more adults than pups. Relative captures of pups were similar across different trap types, suggesting that pups are equally sampled by each of the deployed trap types. Relative captures of adults were lower in Sherman traps, suggesting that this age class avoided solid-walled traps. For Octodon degus, the sole use of Tomahawk traps may produce sufficient, unbiased demographic data. Only 4 trap mortalities occurred (0.15%). Researchers may minimize trap mortality without compromising sufficient demographic sampling by trapping during peak animal activity.