La structure de la cellule végétale: Les inclusions du cytoplasme et en particulier les chondriosomes et les plastes

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L'analyse et la synthèse en systématique végétale

Analysis and synthesis have been widely used in systematics since, at least, the XIXth Century. Even now, the four major authors (Cronquist, Dahlgren, Takhtajan, Thorne) of angiosperm systems use “synthetic” to qualify their classifications. This word — synthetic or synthesis — has many different meanings that can create ambiguity. Among these meanings, is there one that can be justifiably used to define biological classifications? Although much more than the following applications can be found in the botanical literature, this paper will mainly deal with six meanings which are still in use in contemporary systematics. A synthetic classification has been understood as a classification built upward, from the lower to the higher categories. If we define synthesis as the operation that starts with elements and proceeds to a whole, then upward classification could be viewed as a synthesis in which the concept of hierarchy plays a primordial role, a role that is not initially a part of synthesis. Moreover, synthesis cannot replace all classificatory processes, and other criteria of taxa must be used in addition to synthesis Historically, synthesis has replaced analysis; the latter being employed by Linnaeus in his sexual system. Indeed, Linnaeus used a divisive method in producing his classification; and since division was seen as synonymous to analysis and recognized as a method that led to artificial taxa, leading French taxonomists Adanson, Lamarck and A.-L. de Jussieu among others, rejected analysis and viewed their classifications as synthetic, i.e., based on the natural method. Therefore, a system of value took place: natural was better than artificial, synthesis better than analysis. Reinforcing the importance of synthesis was the belief in a concept widely accepted at the end of the XVIIIth Century: that of continuity. Linking groups and forming a continuum was a procedure eminently synthetic. Such a procedure, known as “chaining”, produced series or sequences of taxa. Analysis was used solely to express the idea of dichotomous or analytical keys, a Lamarckian innovation that enabled taxonomists to identify plants. But whether classifications are built from lower to higher categories (a synthesis of taxa) or from higher to lower categories (an analysis of taxa), another simultaneous, concomitant movement is implied: with the latter, a synthesis of characters, with the former, an analysis of characters. Therefore, a synthetic classification is nevertheless an analytical classification.Basing groups on resemblance instead of difference, results in yet another application of synthesis. This application is probably due to the analogy with “composition”. Already, a separation between resemblance and difference among characters is an analysis. More important, still, is that at a certain rank some characters are used to join whereas, at another rank, they separate. Thus, depending on ranks and taxa, characters are applied in a synthetic or analytical procedure. Here also, other criteria are needed to support group delimitation.In connection with the upward (synthetic) movement in classifying taxa, the use of a great number of characters was also considered to be synthesis. This has been a recurring theme in taxonomy over the last two centuries and was sometimes seen as the Gilmourian approach to classification. When would we be justified to talk about synthesis? After how many characters? In fact, it is not the number of characters that matters but how characters are handled. The use of many characters has been closely linked to the idea of natural groups and its joining with synthesis seems to derive from the association of “natural” and “synthetic”.Synthetic classifications equally imply the common idea that they must represent a résumé of information stemming from all biological fields or disciplines. If classifications portray evolution, as many systematists suggest, then it cannot be just a résumé. And one must first decide what classifications are about: a controversial subject among different schools of thought in taxonomy. This explains another meaning attached to synthesis. Biological classifications have been said to be a synthesis or résumé of two types of information: that of similarity and that of phylogeny. Anagenesis is sometimes viewed as incremental to classification and makes up for a third type of information. Even though taxonomists would (for once!) agree that a classification should be based on phenetic, cladogenetic and anagenetic data, such a classification cannot qualify as a synthesis since it is not a composition and does not meet the definition given above (an operation that starts with elements and goes on to a whole). It is impossible to represent these three types of data together in one classification scheme; they express three, sometimes irreducible, points of view. For such a classification, the word “eclectic” is preferable and closer to reality.The use of synthesis as one term of the dialectical movement has made hesitant steps in taxonomy. Indeed, the two opposed theses that evolve into the synthesis are hardly met in classification and the “dialectical” synthesis promulgated by a few taxonomists can be referred back to synthesis as a résumé.Is classification synthetic because it appears to be based on inductive procedures, as it is sometimes implied by different authors who link deduction and analysis (stemming from downward classification)? In logic, synthesis is sometimes (and questionably so) associated with deduction. Moreover, synthesis cannot follow from induction which deals, for example, with the universality of characters. In that sense, there is no composition and so no synthesis. Thus, although induction has been part of classification, it is not a synthetic method.Apart from the ambiguity originating from the multiple meanings of the word “synthesis” in the context of taxonomy, synthetic classifications do not fully express all the complexity and procedures that lead to it. Actually, a classification is as much a synthesis as an analysis. Both methods are complementary, and should not be opposed as is sometimes the case. This opposition was implicit in the debate between Linneans and Jussieans, surrounding the development of the natural method. If one wants to use “synthetic”, then one should be explicit about its meaning. Taxonomists should also be aware of the incompleteness of synthesis in constructing a classification and should be careful not to create a system of value based upon philosophical ground. They should always prefer a complementary mode of thinking when feasible, instead of an “either-or” approach.     

Observations sur la végétation de la zone littorale en Provence

Sans résuméReçu par la rédaction le 1.VII.1953.     

Perspectives nouvelles de la cartographie biogéographique végétale intégrée

Résumé Après avoir indiqué les objectifs et les concepts généraux de la cartographie biogéographique intégrée de la végétation et de son écologie, l'auteur expose, avec plus de détails, les conceptions de forme dans l'expression cartographique, ainsi que les conceptions sur le contenu scientifique des cartes biogéographiques.A ce propos, il décrit un modèle général de la perception des faits et de leurs relations réciproques au'il désigne par l'expression: pyramide de perception. Ce modèle comprend 5 niveaux, des petites aux très grandes échelles. Une application à l'écologie végétale et à la phytogégraphie est développée. De nouveaux types de cartes sont décrits (carte de l'occupation des terres, cartes phyto-écologiques).

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Summary The author, first of all, shows the objectives and the main concepts of the biogeographical integrated cartography of the vegetation and of its ecology, he exposes after that, in a more circumstantial way, the conception of the form in the cartographical expression as well as the conceptions bearing on the scientific content of biogeographical maps.In this connection he describes a general model of the perception of facts and of their reciprocal relations, he terms this model: pyramid of perception. This latter comprises 5 levels from the small to the largest scales. An application to plant ecology and to plant geography is developed. New map types (certain forms of land-use maps, phytoecological maps) are described.

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Zusammenfassung Einleitend bespricht der Verfasser das Ziel und die allgemeinen Begriffe der integrierten biogeographischen Vegetationskartierung und deren Ökologie. Dann behandelt er eingehend die Formenbegriffe in der kartographischen Darstellung, sowie die den wissen-schaftlichen Inhalt der biogcographischen Karten betreffenden Begriffe.In dieser Beziehung beschreibt er ein allgemeines Modell der gegenseitigen Beziehungen und der Wahrnehmung der Tatsachen. Das Modell wird durch den Ausdruck Wahrnehmungspyramide bezeichnet und besteht aus 5 Stufen, von den kleinen bis zu den großen Maßstäben. Eine Anwendung zur Vegetationsökologie und zur Phytogeographie wird erörtert. Es werden neue Kartentype beschrieben (einige Formen von Bodennutzungskarten, phytoökologische Karten).

     

Vue d'ensemble sur la végétation de la turquie

Sans résuméReçu par la rédaction le 15.XI.1953.     

Les profils de composition en oligoéléments des pollens,marqueurs potentiels en cladistique végétale

In botany tentative attempts have been made to classify species, based not on the plant as a whole, but on a particular character, for example pollen characteristics. Pollen, which is involved in the transmission of male genetic information during sexual reproduction, is of particular interest in distinguishing plants and their relationships.

These characters, observed in photon- and scanning electron- microscopy are symmetry, form, number and position of germinating areas. Being genetically stable for a given species, they identify a plant.

Recently, a novel character has been added: the concentration of elements in the exine, determined by electron probe micro-X-ray analysis. It is interesting to follow relationship of plant species, based on the mineral composition of their pollen as a whole, taking into account both plastic and oligoelements, obtained via an inductive coupled plasma spectrometer. Samples of pollen from different plant species, at distinct taxonomic levels, were analyzed; the results were submitted to a normalisation procedure and the standard patterns obtained were investigated by means of a number of numerical techniques (clustering and factor analysis). The aim was to establish if elements could be considered as chemical markers in plant cladistics. The mineral composition in a given species appeared quite stable and this furnished a convenient identification-critorion.

This approach further allows a chemo-taxonomy of species, in as much as organization of families, and perhaps orders, would conform to the phylogenetic proximity-criterion. Hence, we found clusters including pollen of Gramineae, Coniferae, Betulaceae…

This methodology, that should be completed and corroborated on a wider range of samples would provide an original responsee to the problems of identification and classification encountered in a pollen bank. It follows that:

Hence, the working hypothesis that the chemical markers and, in particular, oligo-elements, complete pollen typologies based on morphological and structural characters, appears quite reasonable.

In conclusion, this paper brings a complement to the mineral composition of the exine.

En botanique, des tentatives ont été faites pour classer les espèces non plus à partir d'individus pris dans leur intégralité, mais sur la base d'une de leurs particularités, par exemple à partir des caractéristiques offertes par les pollens. Ainsi, le pollen, dont le rôle est de transmettre l'information génétique mâle de la plante au moment de la reproduction sexuée, présente des caractères de premier ordre utilisables pour distinguer les différentes plantes et pour situer leur parenté et leur filiation.

Ces caractères, que l'on observe en microscopies photonique et électronique à balayage sont la symétrie, la forme, le nombre et la position des zones germinatives. Pour une espèce génétiquement stable, ils constituent la carte d'identité de la plante.

Il est intéressant de continuer à explorer la voie de la structuration des espèces végétales basée sur la connaissance chimique du pollen en déterminant sa composition en oligo-éléments par l'utilisation d'un spectromètre à plasma à couplage inductif. Ainsi, des échantillons de pollens appartenant à diverses espèces végétales situées à différents niveaux taxinomiques ont été analysés et les résultats normalisés sous forme de profils standard ont été soumis à différentes techniques d'analyse statistique mathématique (classification automatique et analyse factorielle). Le but de cette approche est d'apprécier l'aptitude des éléments minéraux à être des marqueurs chimiques en cladistique végétale.

Les résultats obtenus ont permis de constater la relative stabilité du profil en composition minérale au sein d'une même espèce végétale, ce qui donne accès à un critère d'identification commode.

Cette approche permet d'autre part une chimiotaxinomie des plantes étudiées.

Cette approche méthodologique semble susceptible d'apporter une réponse originale aux problèmes de conservation. Les pollens conservés doivent avoir la même composition minérale que les pollens frais.

— the pattern of pollen composition of oligo-elements, calcium and magnesium is a marker in plant cladistics. Since a typology depending on proximity is found between plant species, families and orders.

— an unknown pollen sample may be located, tentatively, on the base of a described model of pollen relation (shortest connexion network — Prim algorithm — and pollen of Bactris-oil palm and Phoenix dactylifera).     

Le pré-analytique en hémostase

La phase pré-analytique est celle de tous les dangers, en particulier lorsque le biologiste n’a pas la ma?trise du recueil de l’échantillon et de son acheminement au laboratoire. En hémostase thrombose, elle est essentielle. Les paramètres pré-analytiques sont d’importance inégale selon les différents examens et leur retentissement peut varier d’un réactif à l’autre et selon les patients. De fait, il existe un risque de rendre un résultat erroné, même avec une technique irréprochable, ainsi qu’un problème de responsabilité technico-légale. La littérature sur les conditions pré-analytiques est pauvre et de nouvelles études sont nécessaires, même si elles sont difficiles à mener et peuvent para?tre de peu d’intérêt. En réalité, leur utilité est aujourd’hui indéniable, en raison notamment du regroupement des laboratoires.     

L’effet des rayons x sur le protoplasme,le noyau et le chondriome de la cellule végétale d'après les observations sur le vivant

Sans résumé Avec planches I et II     

Le vécu de la sexualité chez les paraplégiques

In spinal cord injury, sexual reactions have a common dimension with ablebodied mankind, but also particular features corresponding to particular neurological syndromes. The third dimension which has to be taken into account is the singular one, every man, paraplegic or able-bodied, being unique. When the level of the lesion is above T10, genito-sexual responses to stimulations have a reflex functioning. In such cases, erotic tricks must be used to complete psycho-physiological reactions. On the contrary, technical devices are ill-tolerated both by the paraplegic man and by his spouse. Incomplete lesions in T12-L1 have to psychogenic responses to stimulations, i.e. partial erection and/or semen emission due to the neurophysiological mecanisms of desire. In the complete lesions of the conus medullaris or of the cauda equina, men become impotent and can no longer produce semen. In such cases, technical devices and drugs directly injected in the corpus cavernosum are technically efficacious but psychologically ill-tolerated. Facing his new sexual responses, the paraplegic man and his spouse have to adjuste themselves to the new circumstances. The way of adjustment is similar to a mourning process. One has to pay attention to let every paraplegic live every period of adjustment on his own, and at the same time one must be present to help him and answer his questioning.     

Contribution a la connaissance de la distribution géographique de quelques Chlorophycées en Belgique

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Etude sur la végétation des dunes et des landes de la bretagne

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